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HISTORY 

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ISLANDS 

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ISLANDS 

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A  HISTORY 


OF 


THE  PHILIPPINES 


BY 

DAVID   P.   BARROWS 


.      INDIANAPOLIS 

THE   BOBBS-MERRILL   COMPANY 
PUBLISHERS 


COPYRIGHT,  1905,  BY 
DAVID  P.  BABBOWS 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 


Barrows,  Philippines 


PREFACE 


THIS  book  has  been  prepared  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
educational  authorities  for  pupils  in  the  public  high  schools 
of  the  Philippines,  as  an  introduction  to  the  history  of 
their  country.  Its  preparation  occupied  about  two  years, 
while  the  author  was  busily  engaged  in  other  duties,  — 
much  of  it  being  written  while  he  was  traveling  or  ex- 
ploring in  different  parts  of  the  Archipelago.  No  pre- 
tensions are  made  to  an  exhaustive  character  for  the  book. 
For  the  writer,  as  well  as  for  the  pupil  for  whom  it  is 
intended,  it  is  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  history 
of  Malaysia. 

Considerable  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  securing 
the  necessary  historical  sources,  but  it  is  believed  that -the 
principal  ones  have  been  read.  The  author  is  greatly 
indebted  to  the  Honorable  Dr.  Pardo  de  Tavera  for  the 
use  of  rare  volumes  from  his  library,  and  he  wishes  to 
acknowledge  also  the  kindness  of  -Mr.  Manuel  Yriarte, 
Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Archives,  for  permission  to  exam- 
ine public  documents.  The  occasional  reprints  of  the  old 
Philippine  histories  have,  however,  been  used  more  fre- 
quently than  the  original  editions.  The  splendid  series 
of  reprinted  works  on  the  Philippines,  promised  by  Miss 
Blair  and  Mr.  Robertson,  was  not  begun  in  time  to  be 
used  in  the  preparation  of  this  book.  The  appearance  of 
this  series  will  make  easy  a  path  which  the  present  writer 

(1) 


2  PREFACE 

has  found  comparatively  difficult,  and  will  open  the  way 
for  an  incomparably  better  history  of  the  Philippines  than 
has  ever  yet  been  made. 

The  drawings  of  ethnographic  subjects,  which  partly 
illustrate  this  book,  were  made  from  objects  in  the  Philip- 
pine Museum  by  Mr.  Anselmo  Espiritu,  a  teacher  in  the 
public  schools  of  Manila.  They  are  very  accurate. 

Above  every  one  else,  in  writing  this  book,  the  author 
is  under  obligations  to  his  wife,  without  whose  constant 
help  and  encouragement  it  could  not  have  been  written. 

DAVID  P.   BARROWS. 
MANILA,  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS, 
MARCH  IST,  1903. 


PREFACE  TO  THE   SECOND   EDITION 

THE  first  edition  of  this  book,  which  appeared  in  the 
summer  of  1905,  has  been  exhausted  for  some  time,  and 
another  issue  seems  called  for.  The  book  has  received 
some  severe  criticism,  especially  for  its  treatment  of  the 
work  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  the  policy  pur- 
sued at  times  by  the  Spanish  Government.  I  have  care- 
fully reviewed  all  of  these  criticisms  that  came  to  my 
attention  and  have  concluded  that,  almost  without  excep- 
tion, the  statements  should  remain  as  first  presented. 
The  book,  therefore,  appears  again  practically  without 
alteration,  except  for  the  correction  of  typographical 
errors  and  the  occasional  modification  of  a  paragraph. 

On  the  other  hand,  several  friends,  who  have  been  good 
enough  to  read  the  volume,  have  urged  that  it  be  rewritten 
on  a  more  extended  plan,  allowing  larger  treatment  to  cer- 
tain topics.  I  have  not  done  this,  for  two  reasons  :  first, 


PREFACE  3 

because  of  a  lack  of  requisite  leisure  ;  second,  because 
some  further  time  must  yet  elapse  before  certain  indispen- 
sable material  is  available.  This  includes  the  completion 
of  the  source  publications  by  Miss  Blair  and  Mr.  Robert- 
son, The  Philippine  Islands,  now  issued  up  to  Volume 
XLIX  ;  the  publication  of  the  Insurgent  War  Records  ; 
and  especially  the  bringing  to  light  or  better  ordering  of 
material,  both  private  and  official,  bearing  on  the  last 
decades  of  Spanish  rule. 

The  period  of  1860  to  1898  is  one  of  consummate  in- 
terest. It  covers  the  period  when  the  Spanish  Govern- 
ment was  trying  to  reform  its  administration  in  keeping 
with  the  progress  of  the  islands  ;  when  the  forces  of 
reaction  were  persistently  triumphing;  and  when  the 
rapidly  expanding  development  of  the  people  itself  con- 
stantly resulted  in  larger  aspirations.  Some  of  the  most 
salutary  lessons  of  colonial  history  are  contained  in  this 
epoch.  What  the  Spanish  Government  then  faced,  other 
colonial  powers  will  shortly  be  facing ;  and  the  history  of 
this  period  of  unrest  and  transition  can  hardly  be  written 
too  large.  This  is  the  portion  of  the  present  volume  for 
which  I  feel  apology  is  most  due.  However,  I  will  say 
again,  this  book  is  only  an  introduction  to  the  history  of 
the  Philippines  under  Spanish  and  American  rule. 

It  may  be  added  further,  that  some  few -years  more 
must  elapse  before  the  work  of  America  in  the  Philippines 
can  be  properly  presented.  The  view  given  in  Chapter  XIII 
is  of  the  American  Government  at  the  time  of  its  organiza- 
tion and  first  efforts.  Five  years  have  since  elapsed,  and  in 
that  brief  period  remarkable  results  have  been  attained, 
which  must,  however,  be  carried  still  further  before  their 
full  consequence  will  be  disclosed.  There  has  been  estab* 


4  PREFACE 

lished  between  the  races  a  new  standard  of  relationship 
of  far  more  importance  than  any  tangible  results.  The 
spirit  of  the  effort  has  been  aptly  characterized  by  a  most 
competent  French  critic  as  "  the  substitution  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  partnership  for  that  of  domination."  It  marks 
an  advance  in  the  intercourse  of  races  for  which  the 
world  is  most  in  need.  The  successful  establishment  of 
this  principle  in  the  government  of  the  Philippines,  will 
be  sufficient  to  set  the  achievements  of  the  first  American 
civil  governor  beside  the  greatest  results  of  adminis- 
trators of  foreign  colonies. 

By  the  time  these  pages  appear  the  Filipino  people  will 
have  chosen  a  representative  legislative  assembly  with 
the  legal  capacity,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the 
islands,  to  express  the  general  desire  and  will.  It  goes 
without  saying  that  its  voice  will  have  great  weight  with 
the  American  nation.  What  will  it  demand  ?  The  pro- 
gram of  an  independent  Philippines  under  the  disin- 
terested protection  of  the  United  States  would  seem  to 
be  an  impossibility.  No  nation,  least  of  all  America,  with 
her  traditional  aversion  to  foreign  complications,  would 
undertake  to  guarantee  the  integrity  or  the  internal  peace 
of  the  Philippines  without  an  adequate  control  of  the 
administration.  As  long  as  America  bears  any  responsi- 
bility for  the  Philippines,  the  ultimate  administrative 
authority  must  be  with  those  of  her  own  choosing. 

Complete  independence,  freeing  America  definitely 
from  all  burden  and  further  interest,  is  on  the  other 
hand  an  intelligible  program  and  admissible  among 
practical  policies ;  but  the  greatest  peril  of  the  Archi- 
pelago lies  in  the  possibility  of  the  Philippine  Assembly 
seeking  this  separation  and  in  the  disposition  of  the 


PREFACE  5 

American  people  to  welcome  such  a  solution.     Separation 
too  early  realized  would  lead  to  disaster. 

There  is  no  short  cut  to  Philippine  Nationality.  Its 
attainment  is  a  long  task,  calling  for  infinite  patience  and 
self-control.  The  population'  must  greatly  increase  and 
must  effectively  occupy  the  entire  archipelago,  satisfac-f 
tory  relations  with  the  Pagan  and  Mohammedan  peoples'^ 
must  be  established,  education  must  do  its  work,  and  the 
social  order  be  entirely  transformed,  before  the  basis  of 
national  life  is  laid.  Yet  the  aspiration  for  national  exist- 
ence cannot  justly  be  discouraged.  It  is  the  motive 
power  under  which  the  greatest  of  popular  triumphs 
have  been  achieved.  The  situation  is  one  peculiarly  deli- 
cate and  yet  full  of  the  greatest  promise.  There  is  every 
reason  why  both  Americans  and  Filipinos  should  hold  to 
their  tasks  with  constant  devotion  and  watchfulness  over 
self.  There  could  be  no  better  motto  for  all  who  are 
engaged  in  this  undertaking  than  the  words  of  the  present 
Secretary  of  War,  on  whom,  more  than  on  any  other  man, 
rests  the  immediate  future  of  the  Philippines,  "In  my 
view,  a  duty  is  an  entirety,  and  it  is  not  fulfilled  until  it 
is  entirely  fulfilled." 

DAVID  P.   BAEROWS. 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 
MAY,  1907. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

I.     The  Philippines  as  a  Subject  for  Historical  Study    ...  9 

II.     The  Peoples  of  the  Philippines 25 

III.  Europe  and  the  Far  East  about  1400  A.D 42 

IV.  The  Great  Geographical  Discoveries 61 

V.     Filipino  People  Before  the  Arrival  of  the  Spaniards       .     .  88 

VI.    The  Spanish  Soldier  and  the  Spanish  Missionary      .      .      .  108 

VII.     Period  of  Conquest  and  Settlement,  1565-1600  .       ...  125 

VIII.     The  Philippines  Three  Hundred  Years  Ago 156 

IX.     The  Dutch  and  Moro  Wars,  1600-1663 187 

X.    A  Century  of  Obscurity  and  Decline,  1663-1762       ...  212 
XI.     The  Philippines  During  the  Period  of  European  Revolu- 
tion, 1762-1837 231 

XII.     Progress  and  Revolution,  1837-1897 259 

XIII.     America  and  the  Philippines 287 

Appendix 321 

Index    .  325 


LIST   OF  MAPS. 


Philippine  Islands    ....       6,7  The  New  World  and  the  Indies 

Countries     and     Peoples     of  as  divided  between  Spain  and 

Malaysia 26, 27  Portugal 85 

Races    and    Peoples    of    the  Conquest  and  Settlement  by  the 

Philippines 30  Spaniards  in  the  Philippines, 

The  Spread  of  Mohammedanism    39  1565-1590 124 

Europe  about  1400  A.D.    ...    44  Straits  of  Manila       ....       133 

Routes  of  Trade  to  the  Far  East    50  The  City  of  Manila   ....       134 

The  Countries  of  the  Far  East  Luzon 158,  159 

in  the  16th  Century  ....    58  Mindanao,    Bisayas,     and 

Restoration  of  Toscanelli's  Map   69  Palawan  (Paragua)    .     .  288,  289 

Early  Spanish  Discoveries  in  the  American    Campaigns    in 

Philippines  . 77  Northern  Luzon   ....       302 

,  (8) 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PHILIPPINES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  PHILIPPINES  AS  A  SUBJECT  FOR  HISTORICAL 

STUDY. 

Purpose  of  this  Book.  —  This  book  has  been  written  for 
the  young  men  and  young  women  of  the  Philippines,  It 
is  intended  to  introduce  them  to  the  history  of  their 
own  island  country.  The  subject  of  Philippine  history  is 
much  broader  and  more  splendid  than  the  size  and  char- 
acter of  this  little  book  reveal.  Many  subjects  have  only 
been  briefly  touched  upon,  and  there  are  many  sources  of 
information,  old  histories,  letters  and  official  documents, 
which  the  writer  had  not  time  and  opportunity  to  study 
hi  the  preparation  of  this  work.  It  is  not  too  soon,  how- 
ever, to  present  a  history  of  the  Philippines,  even  though 
imperfectly  written,  to  the  Philippine  people  themselves; 
and  if  this  book  serves  to  direct  young  men  and  young 
women  to  a  study  of  the  history  of  their  own  island  coun- 
try, it  will  have  fulfilled  its  purpose. 

The  Development  of  the  Philippines  and  of  Japan.  —  In 
many  ways  the  next  decade  of  the  history  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  may  resemble  the  splendid  development  of 
the  neighboring  country  of  Japan.  Both  countries  have 
in  past  times  been  isolated  more  or  less  from  the  life  and 
thought  of  the  modern  world.  Both  are  now  open  to  the 
full  current  of  human  affairs.  Both  countries  promise  to 
play  an  important  part  hi  the  politics  and  commerce  of 

9 


10  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  Far  East.  Geographically,  the  Philippines  occupy  the 
more  central  and  influential  position,  and  the  success  of 
the  institutions  of  the  Philippines  may  react  upon  the 
countries  of  southeastern  Asia  and  Malaysia  to  an  extent 
that  we  cannot  appreciate  or  foresee.  Japan,  by  reason 
of  her  larger  population,  the  greater  industry  of  her  people, 
a  more  orderly  social  life,  and  devoted  public  spirit,  is  at 
the  present  time  far  in  the  lead. 

The  Philippines.  —  But  the  Philippines  possess  certain 
advantages  which,  in  the  course  of  some  years,  may  tell 
strongly  in  her  favor.  There  are  greater  natural  resources, 
a  richer  soil,  and  more  tillable  ground.  The  population, 
while  not  large,  is  increasing  rapidly,  as  rapidly,  in  fact, 
as  the  population  of  Japan  or  of  Java.  And  in  the  char- 
acter of  her  institutions  the  Philippines  have  certain 
advantages.  The  position  of  woman,  while  unfortunate 
in  Japan,  as  in  China  and  nearly  all  eastern  countries,  in 
the  Philippines  is  most  fortunate,  and  is  certain  to  tell 
effectually  upon  the  advancement  of  the  race  in  competi- 
tion with  other  eastern  civilizations.  The  fact  that  Chris- 
tianity is  the  established  religion  of  the  people  makes 
possible  a  sympathy  and  understanding  between  the  Phil- 
ippines and  western  countries. 

Japan.  —  Yet  there  are  many  lessons  which  Japan  can 
teach  the  Philippines,  and  one  of  these  is  of  the  advantages 
and  rewards  of  fearless  and  thorough  study.  Fifty  years 
ago,  Japan,  which  had  rigorously  excluded  all  intercourse 
with  foreign  nations,  was  induced  to  open  its  doors  by  an 
American  fleet  under  Commodore  Perry.  At  that  time 
the  Japanese  knew  little  of  western  history,  and  had  no 
knowledge  of  modern  science.  Their  contact  with  the 
Americans  and  other  foreigners  revealed  to  them  the  in- 
feriority of  their  knowledge.  The  leaders  of  the  country 


A   SUBJECT  FOR  HISTORICAL  STUDY.  H 

awoke  to  the  necessity  of  a  study  of  western  countries 
and  their  achievements,  especially  in  government  and  in 
the  sciences. 

Japan  had  at  her  service  a  special  class  of  people  known 
as  the  samurai,  who,  in  the  life  of  Old  Japan,  were  the 
free  soldiers  of  the  feudal  nobility,  and  who  were  not  only 
the  fighters  of  Japan,  but  the  students  and  scholars  as 
well.  The  young  men  of  this  samurai  class  threw  them- 
selves earnestly  and  devotedly  Into  the  study  of  the  great 
fields  of  knowledge,  which  had  previously  been  unknown 
to  the  Japanese.  At  great  sacrifice  many  of  them  went 
abroad  to  other  lands,  in  order  to  study  hi  foreign  uni- 
versities. Numbers  of  them  went  to  the  United  States, 
frequently  working  as  servants  in  college  towns  in  order 
to  procure  the  means  for  the  pursuit  of  their  education. 

The  Japanese  Government  in  every  way  began  to  adopt 
measures  for  the  transformation  of  the  knowledge  of  the 
people.  Schools  were  opened,  latoratories  established,  and 
great  numbers  of  scientific  and  historical  books  were  trans- 
lated into  Japanese.  A  public  school  system  was  organized, 
and  finally  a  university  was  established.  The  Government 
sent  abroad  many  young  men  to  study  in  almost  every 
branch  of  knowledge  and  to  return  to  the  service  of  the 
people.  The  manufacturers  of  Japan  studied  and  adopted 
western  machinery  and  modern  methods  of  production. 
The  government  itself  underwent  revolution  and  reorgani- 
zation upon  lines  more  liberal  to  the  people  and  more 
favorable  to  the  national  spirit  of  the  country.  The 
result  has  been  the  transformation,  in  less  than  fifty  years, 
of  what  was  formerly  an  isolated  and  ignorant  country. 

The  Lesson  for  the  Filipinos.  — This  is  the  great 
lesson  which  Japan  teaches  the  Philippines.  If  there  is 
to  be  transformation  here,  with  a  constant  growth  of 


12  THE    PHILIPPINES. 

knowledge  and  advancement,  and  an  elevation  of  the 
character  of  the  people  as  a  whole,  there  must  be  a  cour- 
ageous and  unfaltering  search  for  the  truth:  and  the  young 
men  and  young  women  of  the  Philippines  must  seek  the 
advantages  of  education,  not  for  themselves,  but  for  the 
benefit  of  their  people  and  their  land;  not  to  gain  for 
themselves  a  selfish  position  of  social  and  economic  ad- 
vantage over  the  poor  and  less  educated  Filipinos,  but  in 
order  that,  having  gained  these  advantages  for  themselves, 
they  may  in  turn  give  them  to  their  less  fortunate  coun- 
trymen. The  young  Filipino,  man  or  woman,  must  learn 
the  lessons  of  truthfulness,  courage,  and  unselfishness,  and 
in  all  of  his  gaining  of  knowledge,  and  in  his  use  of  it  as 
well,  he  must  practice  these  virtues,  or  his  learning  will 
be  an  evil  to  his  land  and  not  a  blessing. 

The  aim  of  this  book  is  to  help  him  to  understand,  first 
of  all,  the  place  that  the  Philippines  occupy  in  the  modern 
history  of  nations,  so  that  he  may  understand  how  far 
and  from  what  beginnings  the  Filipino  people  have  pro- 
gressed, toward  what  things  the  outside  world  itself  has 
moved  during  this  time,  and  what  place  and  opportunities 
the  Filipinos,  as  a  people,  may  seek  for  in  the  future. 

The  Meaning  of  History.  —  History,  as  it  is  written  and 
understood,  comprises  many  centuries  of  human  life  and 
achievement,  and  we  must  begin  our  study  by  discussing 
a  little  what  history  means.  Men  may  live  for  thousands 
of  years  without  having  a  life  that  may  be  called  his- 
torical; for  history  is  formed  only  where  there  are  credible 
written  records  of  events.  Until  we  have  these  records, 
we  have  no  ground  for  historical  study,  but  leave  the 
field  to  another  study,  which  we  call  Archeology,  or  Pre- 
historic Culture. 

Historical  Races.  —  Thus  there  are  great  races  which 


A    SUBJECT  FOR  HISTORICAL   STUDY.  13 

have  no  history,  for  they  have  left  no  records.  Either  the 
people  could  not  write,  or  their  writings  have  been  de- 
stroyed, or  they  told  nothing  about  the  life  of  the  people. 
The  history  of  these  races  began  only  with  the  coming  of 
a  historical,  or  more  advanced  race  among  them. 

Thus,  the  history  of  the  black,  or  negro,  race  begins 
only  with  the  exploration  of  Africa  by  the  white  race, 
and  the  history  of  the  American  Indians,  except  perhaps 
of  those  of  Peru  and  Mexico,  begins  only  with  the  white 
man's  conquest  of  America.  The  white,  or  European,  race 
is,  above  all  others,  the  great  historical  race;  but  the  yel- 
low race,  represented  by  the  Chinese,  has  also  a  historical 
life  and  development,  beginning  many  centuries  before  the 
birth  of  Christ. 

For  thousands  of  years  the  history  of  the  white  race 
was  confined  to  countries  bordering  or  adjacent  to  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  There  was  little  contact  with  other 
races  of  men  and  almost  no  knowledge  of  countries  beyond 
the  Mediterranean  shores.  The  great  continents  of  Amer- 
ica and  Australia  and  the  beautiful  island-world  of  the 
Pacific  and  Indian  oceans  were  scarcely  dreamed  of.  This 
was  the  status  of  the  white  race  in  Europe  a  little  more 
than  five  hundred  years  ago.  How  different  is  the  posi- 
tion of  this  race  to-day!  It  has  now  explored  nearly  the 
entire  globe.  The  white  people  have  crossed  every  con- 
tinent and  every  sea.  On  every  continent  they,  have  estab- 
lished colonies  and  over  many  countries  their  power. 

During  these  last  five  centuries,  besides  this  spread  of 
geographical  discovery,  the  mingling  of  all  the  races,  and 
the  founding  of  great  colonies,  have  come  also  the  develop- 
ment of  scientific  knowledge,  great  discoveries  and  inven- 
tions, the  utilization  of  steam  and  electricity,  which  give 
to  man  such  tremendous  powor  over  the  material  world. 


14  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Very  important  changes  also  have  marked  the  religious 
and  political  life  of  the  race.  Within  these  years  came 
the  Protestant  revolt  from  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
destroying  in  some  degree  the  unity  of  Christendom;  and 
the  great  revolutions  of  Europe  and  America,  establish- 
ing democratic  and  representative  governments. 

This  expansion  and  widening  of  the  life  of  the  Euro- 
pean race,  beginning  about  five  hundred  years  ago, 
brought  it  into  contact  with  the  Filipino  people,  and  the 
historical  life  of  the  Philippines  dates  from  this  meeting 
of  the  two  races.  Thus  the  history  of  the  Philippines  has 
become  a  part  of  the  history  of  nations.  During  these 
centuries  the  people  of  these  islands,  subjects  of  a  Euro- 
pean nation,  have  progressed  in  social  life  and  govern- 
ment, in  education  and  industries,  in  numbers,  and  in 
wealth.  They  have  often  been  stirred  by  wars  and  revo- 
lutions, by  centuries  of  piratical  invasion,  and  fear  of  con- 
quest by  foreign  nations.  But  these  dangers  have  now 
passed  away. 

There  is  no  longer  fear  of  piratical  ravage  nor  of  foreign 
invasion,  nor  is  there  longer  great  danger  of  internal  re- 
volt; for  the  Philippines  are  at  the  present  time  under  a 
government  strong  enough  to  defend  them  against  other 
powers,  to  put  down  plunder  and  ravage,  and  one  anxious 
and  disposed  to  afford  to  the  people  such  freedom  of  op- 
portunity, such  advantages  of  government  and  life,  that 
the  incentive  to  internal  revolution  will  no  longer  exist. 
Secure.from  external  attack  and  rapidly  progressing  toward 
internal  peace,  the  Philippines  occupy  a  position  most  for- 
tunate among  the  peoples  of  the  Far  East.  They  have 
representative  government,  freedom  of  religion,  and  pub- 
lic education,  and,  what  is  more  than  all  else  to  the  aspir- 
ing or  ambitious  race  or  individual,  freedom  of  opportunity. 


A   SUBJECT  FOR  HISTORICAL   STUDY.  15 

How  History  is  Written.  —  One  other  thing  should  be 
explained  here.  Every  child  who  reads  this  book  should 
understand  a  little  how  history  is  written.  A  most  nat- 
ural inquiry  to  be  made  regarding  any  historical  state- 
ment is,  "How  is  this  known?"  And  this  is  as  proper  a 
question  for  the  school  boy  as  for  the  statesman.  The 
answer  is,  that  history  rests  for  its  facts  largely  upon  the 
written  records  made  by  people  who  either  lived  at  the 
time  these  things  took  place,  or  so  near  to  them  that,  by 
careful  inquiry,  they  could  learn  accurately  of  these  mat- 
ters and  write  them  down  in  some  form,  so  that  we  to-day 
can  read  their  accounts,  and  at  least  know  how  these 
events  appeared  to  men  of  the  time. 

But  not  all  that  a  man  writes,  or  even  puts  hi  a  book, 
of  things  he  has  seen  and  known,  is  infallibly  accurate 
and  free  from  error,  partiality,  and  untruthfulness.  So 
the  task  of  the  historian  is  not  merely  to  read  and  accept 
all  the  contemporary  records,  but  he  must  also  compare 
one  account  with  another,  weighing  all  that  he  can  find, 
making  due  allowance  for  prejudice,  and  on  his  own  part 
try  to  reach  a  conclusion  that  shall  be  true.  Of  course, 
where  records  are  few  the  task  is  difficult  indeed,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  material  may  be  so  voluminous  as  to 
occupy  a  writer  a  lifetime,  and  make  it  impossible  for  any 
one  man  completely  to  exhaust  a  subject. 

Historical  Accounts  of  the  Philippines.  —  For  the  Philip- 
pines we  are  so  fortunate  as  to  have  many  adequate 
sources  of  a  reliable  and  attractive  kind.  In  a  few  words 
some  of  these  will  be  described.  Nearly  all  exist  in  at 
least  a  few  libraries  in  the  Philippines,  where  they  may 
sometime  be  consulted  by  the  Filipino  student,  and  many 
of  them,  at  least  in  later  editions,  may  be  purchased  by 
the  student  for  his  own  possession  and  study. 


16       ,  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  Voyages  of  Discovery.  —  European  discovery  of 
the  Philippines  began  with  the  great  voyage  of  Magellan; 
and  recounting  this  discovery  of  the  islands,  there  is  the 
priceless  narrative  of  one  of  Magellan's  company,  Antonio 
Pigafetta.  His  book  was  written  hi  Italian,  but  was  first 
published  hi  a  French  translation.  The  original  copies 
made  by  Pigafetta  have  disappeared,  but  in  1800  a  text 
was  discovered  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  of  Milan,  Italy, 
and  published.  Translations  into  English  and  other 
languages  exist.  It  may  be  found  in  several  collections 
of  Voyages,  and  there  is  a  good  Spanish  translation  and 
edition  of  recent  date.1  There  are  several  other  accounts 
of  Magellan's  voyage;  but  Pigafetta's  was  the  best  one 
written  by  an  eye-witness,  and  his  descriptions  of  the 
Bisaya  Islands,  Cebu,  Borneo,  and  the  Moluccas  are  won- 
derfully interesting  and  accurate. 

There  were  several  voyages  of  discovery  between 
Magellan's  time  (1521)  and  Legazpi's  time  (1565).  These 
include  the  expeditions  of  Loaisa,  Saavedra,  and  Villalo- 
bos.  Accounts  of  them  are  to  be  found  in  volume  five  of 
the  series  of  publications  made  by  the  Spanish  Govern- 
ment, Colecdon  de  Documentos  Ineditos  del  Archivo  de 
Indias.  In  another  series,  Colecdon  de  los  Viajes  y  Des- 
cubrimientos,  are  the  documents  of  Magellan's  voyage. 

Spanish  Occupation  and  Conquest.  —  As  we  come  to 
the  history  of  Spanish  occupation  and  conquest  of  the 
Philippines,  we  find  many  interesting  letters  and  reports 
sent  by  both  soldiers  and  priests  to  the  king,  or  to  persons 
in  Spain.  The  first  complete  book  on  the  Philippines  was 
written  by  a  missionary  about  1602,  Father  Pedro  Chiri- 
no's  Relation  de  las  Islas  Filipinas,  printed  in  Rome 

1  El  Primer  Viaje  alrededor  del  Mundo,  por  Antonio  Pigafetta, 
traducido  por  Dr.  Carlos  Amoretti  y  anotado  por  Manuel  Walls  y  Merino, 
Madrid,  1899. 


A   SUBJECT  FOR  HISTORICAL  STUDY.  17 

in  1604.  This  important  and  curious  narrative  is  exceed- 
ingly rare,  but  a  reprint,  although  rude  and  poor,  was 
made  in  Manila  in  1890,  which  is  readily  obtainable.  The 
Relacidn  de  las  Islas  Filipinos  was  followed  in  1609  by 
the  work  of  Judge  Antonio  de  Morga,  Sucesos  de  las  Islas 
Filipinas.  This  very  rare  work  was  printed  hi  Mexico. 
In  1890  a  new  edition  was  brought  out  by  Dr.  Jose  Rizal, 
from  the  copy  hi  the  British  Museum.  There  is  also  an 
English  translation. 

These  two  works  abound  hi  curious  and  valuable  infor- 
mation upon  the  Filipino  people  as  they  were  at  the  tune 
of  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  as  does  also  a  later  work, 
the  Oonquistas  de  las  Islas  Filipinas,  by  Friar  Gaspar  de 
San  Augustfn,  printed  in  Madrid  in  1698.  This  latter  is 
perhaps  the  most  interesting  and  most  important  early 
work  on  the  Philippine  Islands. 

As  we  shall  see,  the  history  of  the  Philippines  is  closely 
connected  with  that  of  the  East  Indian  Spice  Islands. 
When  the  Spanish  forces  took  the  rich  island  of  Ternate 
in  1606,  the  triumph  was  commemorated  by  a  volume, 
finely  written,  though  not  free  from  mistakes,  the  Con- 
quista  de  las  Islas  Moluccas,  by  Leonardo  de  Argensola, 
Madrid,  1609.  There  is  an  old  English  translation,  and 
also  French  and  Dutch  translations. 

To  no  other  religious  order  do  we  owe  so  much  historical 
information  as  to  the  Jesuits.  The  scholarship  and  liter- 
ary ability  of  the  Company  have  always  been  high.  Chi- 
rino  was  a  Jesuit,  as  was  also  Father  Francisco  Colin,  who 
wrote  the  Labor  Evangelica,  a  narrative  of  the  Jesuit  mis- 
sions hi  the  Philippines,  China,  and  Japan,  which  was 
printed  hi  Madrid  hi  1663.  This  history  was  continued 
years  later  by  Father  Murillo  Velarde,  who  wrote  what 
he  called  the  Segunda  Parte,  the  Historia  de  la  Provincia 
de  Filipinas  de  la  Compania  de  Jesus,  Manila,  1749. 


18  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

There  is  another  notable  Jesuit  work  to  which  we  owe 
much  of  the  early  history  of  the  great  island  of  Mindanao : 
this  is  the  Historia  de  Mindanao  y  Jolo,  by  Father  Fran- 
cisco Combes.  The  year  1663  marked,  as  we  shall  see,  an 
epoch  in  the  relations  between  the  Spaniards  and  the 
Mohammedan  Malays.  In  that  year  the  Spaniards  aban- 
doned the  fortress  of  Zamboanga,  and  retired  from  south- 
ern Mindanao.  The  Jesuits  had  been  the  missionaries  in 
those  parts  of  the  southern  archipelago,  and  they  made 
vigorous  protests  against  the  abandonment  of  Moro  terri- 
tory. One  result  of  their  efforts  to  secure  the  reoccupancy 
of  these  fortresses  was  the  notable  work  mentioned  above. 
It  is  the  oldest  and  most  important  writing  about  the 
island  and  the  inhabitants  of  Mindanao.  It  was  printed 
in  Madrid  in  1667.  A  beautiful  and  exact  edition  was 
brought  out  a  few  years  ago,  by  Retana. 

A  Dominican  missionary,  Father  Diego  Aduarte,  wrote 
a  very  important  work,  the  Historia  de  la  Provincia  del 
Sancto  Rosario  de  la  Orden  de  Predicadores  en  Filipinas, 
Japdn  y  China,  wThich  was  printed  in  Manila  at  the  Col- 
lege of  Santo  Tomas  in  1640. 

We  may  also  mention  as  containing  a  most  interesting 
account  of  the  Philippines  about  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  the  famous  work  on  China,  by  the  Domini- 
can, Father  Fernandez  Navarrete,  Tratados  historicos,  politi- 
cos,  ethnicos,  y  religiosos  de  la  Monarchia  de  China,  Madrid, 
1767.  Navarrete  arrived  in  these  islands  in  1648,  and  was 
for  a  time  a  cura  on  the  island  of  Mindoro.  Later  he  was 
a  missionary  in  China,  and  then  Professor  of  Divinity  in 
the  University  of  Santo  Tomas.  His  work  is  translated 
into  English  in  Churchill's  Collection  of  Voyages  and  Trav- 
els, London,  1744,  second  volume. 

The  eighteenth  century  is  rather  barren  of  interesting 


A   SUBJECT  FOR  HISTORICAL   STUDY.  19 

historical  matter.  There  was  considerable  activity  in  the 
production  of  grammars  and  dictionaries  of  the  native 
languages,  and  more  histories  of  the  religious  orders  were 
also  produced.  These  latter,  while  frequently  filled  with 
sectarian  matter,  should  not  be  overlooked. 

Between  the  years  1788  and  1792  was  published  the 
voluminous  Historia  General  de  Filipinas,  in  fourteen  vol- 
umes, by  the  Recollect  friar,  Father  Juan  de  la  Concep- 
cion.  The  work  abounds  in  superfluous  matter  and 
trivial  details,  yet  it  is  a  copious  source  of  information,  a 
veritable  mine  of  historical  data,  and  is  perhaps  the  best 
known  and  most  frequently  used  work  upon  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  There  are  a  number  of  sets  in  the  Philip- 
pines which  can  be  consulted  by  the  student. 

Some  years  after,  and  as  a  sort  of  protest  against  so 
extensive  a  treatment  of  history,  the  sane  and  admirable 
Augustinian,  Father  Joaquin  Martinez  de  Zuniga,  wrote 
his  Historia  de  las  Islas  Filipinas,  a  volume  of  about  seven 
hundred  pages.  It  was  printed  in  Sampaloc,  Manila,  in 
1803.  This  writer  is  exceptional  for  his  fairmindedness 
and  freedom  from  the  narrow  prejudices  which  have  char- 
acterized most  of  the  writers  on  the  Philippines.  His 
language  is  terse  and  spirited,  and  his  volume  is  the  most 
readable  and,  in  many  ways,  the  most  valuable  attempt 
at  a  history  of  the  Philippines.  His  narrative  closes  with 
the  English  occupation  of  Manila  in  1763. 

Recent  Histories  and  Other  Historical  Materials. 
-  The  sources  for  the  conditions  and  history  of  the  islands 
during  the  last  century  differ  somewhat  from  the  preced- 
ing. The  documentary  sources  in  the  form  of  public 
papers  and  reports  are  available,  and  there  is  a  consider- 
able mass  of  pamphlets  dealing  with  special  questions  in 
the  Philippines.  The  publication  of  the  official  journal  of 


20  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  Government,  the  Gazeta  de  Manila,  commenced  in 
1861.  It  contains  all  acts  of  legislation,  orders  of  the 
Governors,  pastoral  letters,  and  other  official  matters, 
down  to  the  end  of  Spanish  rule. 

A  vast  amount  of  material  for  the  recent  civil  history 
of  the  islands  exists  hi  the  Archives  of  the  Philippines,  at 
Manila,  but  these  documents  have  been  very  little  ex- 
amined. Notable  among  these  original  documents  is  the 
series  of  Royal  Ce"dulas,  each  bearing  the  signature  of  the 
King  of  Spain,  "  Yo,  el  Rey."  They  run  back  from  the  last 
years  of  sovereignty  to  the  commencement  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  The  early  ce"dulas,  on  the  establishment 
of  Spanish  rule,  are  said  to  have  been  carried  away  by  the 
British  army  in  1763,  and  to  be  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

Of  the  archives  of  the  Royal  Audiencia  at  Manila,  the 
series  of  judgments  begins  with  one  of  1603,  which  is 
signed  by  Antonio  de  Morga.  From  this  date  they  ap- 
pear to  be  complete.  The  earliest  records  of  the  cases 
which  came  before  this  court  that  can  be  found,  date 
from  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Of  modern  historical  writings  mention  must  be  made  of 
the  Historia  de  Filipinas,  three  volumes,  1887,  by  Montero 
y  Vidal,  and  the  publications  of  W.  E.  Retana.  To  the 
scholarship  and  enthusiasm  of  this  last  author  much  is 
owed.  His  work  has  been  the  republication  of  rare  and 
important  sources.  His  edition  of  Combes  has  already 
been  mentioned,  and  there  should  also  be  mentioned,  and 
if  possible  procured,  his  Archivo  del  Biblitifilo  Filipino,  four 
volumes,  a  collection  of  rare  papers  on  the  islands,  of  differ- 
ent dates;  and  his  edition,  the  first  ever  published,  of 
Zuniga's  Estadismo  de  las  Islas  Filipinas,  an  incomparable 
survey  of  the  islands  made  about  1800,  by  the  priest  and 
historian  whose  history  was  mentioned  above. 


A   SUBJECT  FOR  HISTORICAL  STUDY.  21 

Accounts  of  Voyagers  Who  Visited  the  Philippines. 
—  These  references  give  some  idea  of  the  historical  liter- 
ature of  the  Philippines.  They  comprise  those  works 
which  should  be  chiefly  consulted.  There  should  not  be 
omitted  the  numerous  accounts  of  voyagers  who  have 
visited  these  islands  from  time  to  time,  and  who  frequently 
give  us  very  valuable  information.  The  first  of  these  are 
perhaps  the  English  and  Dutch  freebooters,  who  prowled 
about  these  waters  to  waylay  the  richly  laden  galleons. 
One  of  these  was  Dampier,  who,  about  1690,  visited  the 
Ladrones  and  the  Philippines.  His  New  Voyage  Around 
the  World  was  published  hi  1697.  There  was  also  Anson, 
who  in  1743  took  the  Spanish  galleon  off  the  coast  of 
Samar,  and  whose  voyage  is  described  in  a  volume  pub- 
lished in  1745.  There  was  an  Italian  physician,  Carreri, 
who  visited  the  islands  in  1697,  in  the  course  of  a  voyage 
around  the  world,  and  who  wrote  an  excellent  description 
of  the  Philippines,  which  is  printed  in  English  translation 
in  Churchill's  Collection  of  Voyages. 

A  French  expedition  visited  the  East  between  1774  and 
1781,  and  the  Commissioner,  M.  Sonnerat,  has  left  a  brief 
account  of  the  Spanish  settlements  in  the  islands  as  they 
then  appeared.  (Voyage  aux  Indes  Orientates  et  a  la 
Chine,  Paris,  1782,  Vol.  3.) 

There  are  a  number  of  travellers'  accounts  written  in 
the  last  century,  of  which  may  be  mentioned  Sir  John 
Bowring's  Visit  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  1859,  and  Jagor's 
Reisen  in  der  Philippinen,  travels  in  the  year  1859  and 
1860,  which  has  received  translation  into  both  English 
and  Spanish. 

Bibliographies. — For  the  historical  student  a  biblio- 
graphical guide  is  necessary.  Such  a  volume  was  brought 
out  hi  1898,  by  Retana,  Catdlogo  abreviado  de  la  Biblioteca 


22  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Filipino,.  It  contains  a  catalogue  of  five  thousand  seven 
hundred  and  eighty  works,  published  in  or  upon  the 
Philippines.  A  still  more  exact  and  useful  bibliography  has 
been  prepared  by  the  Honorable  T.  H.  Pardo  de  Tavera, 
Biblioteca  Filipino,,  and  is  published  by  the  United  States 
Government. 

It  is  lamentable  that  the  Philippines  Government  pos- 
sesses no  library  of  works  on  the  Archipelago.1  The  foun- 
dation of  such  an  institution  seems  to  have  been  quite 
neglected  by  the  Spanish  Government,  and  works  on  the 
Philippines  are  scarcely  to  be  found,  except  as  they  exist 
in  private  collections.  The  largest  of  these  is  said  to  be 
that  of  the  Compania  General  de  Tabacos,  at  Barcelona, 
which  has  also  recently  possessed  itself  of  the  splendid 
library  of  Retana.  In  Manila  the  Honorable  Dr.  Pardo 
de  Tavera  possesses  the  only  notable  library  in  the  islands. 

The  publication  of  a  very  extensive  series  of  sources  of 
Philippine  history  has  also  been  begun  by  the  Arthur  H. 
Clark  Company  in  the  United  States,  under  the  editorship 
of  Miss  E.  H.  Blair  and  Mr.  J.  A.  Robertson.  The  series 
will  embrace  fifty-five  volumes,  and  will  contain  in  English 
translations  all  available  historical  material  on  the  Philip- 
pines, from  the  age  of  discovery  to  the  nineteenth  century. 
This  notable  collection  will  place  within  the  reach  of  the 
student  all  the  important  sources  of  his  country's  history, 
and  will  make  possible  a  more  extensive  and  accurate 
writing  of  the  history  of  the  islands  than  has  ever  before 
been  possible. 

1  Since  the  above  was  written  the  Philippines  Government  has 
commenced  the  collection  of  historic  works  in  the  Philippines,  and  a 
talented  young  Filipino  scholar,  Mr.  Zulueta,  has  gone  to  Spain  for 
extensive  search,  both  of  archives  and  libraries,  in  order  to  enrich  the 
public  collection  in  the  Philippines. 


A   SUBJECT  FOR  HISTORICAL   STUDY.  23 

In  addition  to  the  published  works,  there  repose  nu- 
merous unstudied  documents  of  Philippine  history  in  the 
the  Archives  of  the  Indies  at  Seville. 

Historical -Work  for  the  Filipino  Student. — After  read- 
ing this  book,  or  a  similar  introductory  history,  the  stu- 
dent should  procure,  one  by  one,  as  many  as  he  can  of 
the  volumes  which  have  been  briefly  described  above,  and, 
by  careful  reading  and  patient  thought,  try  to  round  out 
the  story  of  his  country  and  learn  the  lessons  of  the 
history  of  his  people.  He  will  find  it  a  study  that  will 
stimulate  his  thought  and  strengthen  his  judgment;  but 
always  he  must  search  for  the  truth,  even  though  the 
truth  is  sometimes  humiliating  and  sad.  If  there  are  re- 
regrettable  passages  in  our  own  lives,  we  cannot  find 
either  happiness  or  improvement  in  trying  to  deny  to 
ourselves  that  we  have  done  wrong,  and  so  conceal  and 
minimize  our  error.  So  if  there  are  dark  places  in  the 
history  of  our  land  and  people,  we  must  not  obscure  the 
truth  in  the  mistaken  belief  that  we  are  defending  our 
people's  honor,  for,  by  trying  to  conceal  the  fact  and  ex- 
cuse the  fault,  we  only  add  to  the  shame.  It  is  by  frank 
acknowledgment  and  clear  depiction  of  previous  errors 
that  the  country's  honor  will  be  protected  now  and  in 
the  future. 

Very  interesting  and  important  historical  work  can  be 
done  by  the  Filipino  student  in  his  own  town  or  province. 
The  public  and  parish  records  have  in  many  towns  suf- 
fered neglect  or  destruction.  In  all  possible  cases  these 
documents  should  be  gathered  up  and  cared  for.  For  many 
things,  they  are  worthy  of  study.  They  may  show  the 
growth  of  population,  the  dates  of  erection  of  the  public 
buildings,  the  former  system  of  government,  and  social 
conditions. 

This  is  a  work  in  which  the  patriotism  of  every  young 


24  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

man  and  woman  can  find  an  expression.  Many  sites 
throughout  the  islands  are  notable  for  the  historic  occur- 
rences which  they  witnessed.  These  should  be  suitably 
marked  with  tablets  or  monuments,  and  the  exact  facts  of 
the  events  that  took  place  should  be  carefully  collected, 
and  put  in  writing.  Towns  and  provinces  should  form 
public  libraries  containing,  among  other  works,  books  on 
the  Philippines;  and  it  should  be  a  matter  of  pride  to  the 
young  Filipino  scholar  to  build  up  such  local  institutions, 
and  to  educate  his  townsmen  in  their  use  and  appreciation. 
But  throughout  such  studies  the  student  should  remem- 
ber that  his  town  or  locality  is  of  less  importance,  from  a 
patriotic  standpoint,  than  his  country  as  a  whole;  that  the 
interests  of  one  section  should  never  be  placed  above 
those  of  the  Archipelago;  and  that,  while  his  first  and  fore- 
most duty  is  to  his  town  and  to  his  people,  among  whom 
he  was  born  and  nurtured,  he  owes  a  greater  obligation  to 
his  whole  country  and  people,  embracing  many  different 
islands  and  different  tongues,  and  to  the  great  Govern- 
ment which  holds  and  protects  the  Philippine  Islands,  and 
which  is  making  possible  the  free  development  of  its 
inhabitants. 


CHAPTER   II. 
THE    PEOPLES   OF   THE    PHILIPPINES. 

The  Study  of  Ethnology.  —  The  study  of  races  and 
peoples  forms  a  separate  science  from  history,  and  is 
known  as  ethnology,  or  the  science  of  races.  Ethnology 
treats  of  how  and  where  the  different  races  of  mankind 
originated.  It  explains  the  relationships  between  the 
races  as  well  as  the  differences  of  mind,  of  body,  and  of 
mode  of  living  which  different  peoples  exhibit. 

All  such  knowledge  is  of  great  assistance  to  the  states- 
man as  he  deals  with  the  affairs  of  his  own  people  and  of 
other  peoples,  and  it  helps  private  individuals  of  different 
races  to  understand  one  another  and  to  treat  each  other 
with  due  respect,  kindness,  and  sympathy.  Inasmuch, 
too,  as  the  modern  history  which  we  are  studying  deals 
with  many  different  peoples  of  different  origin  and  race, 
and  as  much  of  our  history  turns  upon  these  differences, 
we  must  look  for  a  little  at  the  ethnology  of  the  Philip- 
pines. 

The  Negritos.  —  Physical  Characteristics.  —  The  great 
majority  of  the  natives  of  our  islands  belong  to  what  is 
usually  called  the  Malayan  race,  or  the  Oceanic  Mongols. 
There  is,  however,  one  interesting  little  race  scattered 
over  the  Philippines,  which  certainly  has  no  relationship 
at  all  with  Malayans.  These  little  people  are  called  by 
the  Tagalog,  "Aeta"  or  "Ita."  The  Spaniards,  when 
they  arrived,  called  them  "Negritos,"  or  "little  negroes," 
the  name  by  which  they  are  best  known.  Since  they 

25 


110         Longitude  East  120 


26 


COUNTRIES  AND  PEOPLES 

OF 

MALAYSIA 

SCALE  OF  MILES  ON  THE  EQUATOR 


KM 


600  800 


1000 


Mohammedan  Malays  (.Javanese.  Bugia,  Sulus,  etc. 
Filipinos  (Christian) 
Primitive  Malayans  (Pagan) 
Melanesians  or  Papuans  , 

Xegritos  f 

0 


from  Greenwich  130 


28  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

were  without  question  the  first  inhabitants  of  these  islands 
of  whom  we  have  any  knowledge,  we  shall  speak  of  them 
at  once. 

They  are  among  the  very  smallest  peoples  in  the  world, 
the  average  height  of  the  men  being  about  145  centi- 
meters, or  the  height  of  an  American  boy  of  twelve 
years  ;  the  women  are  correspondingly  smaller.  They 
have  such  dark-brown  skins  that  many  people  suppose 
them  to  be  quite  black  ;  their  hair  is  very  woolly  or  kinky, 
and  forms  thick  mats  upon  their  heads.  In  spite  of  these 
peculiarities,  they  are  not  unattractive  in  appearance. 
Their  eyes  are  large  and  of  a  fine  brown  color,  their  fea- 
tures are  quite  regular,  and  their  little  bodies  often  beau- 
tifully shaped. 

The  appearance  of  these  little  savages  excited  the 
attention  of  the  first  Spaniards,  and  there  are  many  early 
accounts  of  them.  Padre  Chirino,  who  went  as  a  mis- 
sionary in  1592  to  Panay,  begins  the  narrative  of  his  labors 
in  that  island  as  follows :  "  Among  the  Bisayas,  there  are 
also  some  Negroes.  They  are  less  black  and  ugly  than 
those  of  Guinea,  and  they  are  much  smaller  and  weaker, 
but  their  hair  and  beard  are  just  the  same.  They  are 
much  more  barbarous  and  wild  than  the  Bisayas  and 
other  Filipinos,  for  they  have  neither  houses  nor  any  fixed 
sites  for  dwelling.  They  neither  plant  nor  reap,  but  live 
like  wild  beasts,  wandering  with  their  wives  and  children 
through  the  mountains,  almost  naked.  They  hunt  the 
deer  and  wild  boar,  and  when  they  kill  one  they  stop 
right  there  until  all  the  flesh  is  consumed.  Of  property 
they  have  nothing  except  the  bow  and  arrow."  l 

Manners  and  Customs.  —  The  Negritos  still  have  this 
wild,  timid  character,  and  few  have  ever  been  truly  civ- 

1  Relation  de  las  Islas  Filipinas,  2d  ed.,  p.  38. 


THE  PEOPLES   OF  THE  PHILIPPINES.  29 

ilized  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  some  of  the  Spanish  mis- 
sionaries. They  still  roam  through  the  mountains,  seldom 
building  houses,  but  making  simply  a  little  wall  and  roof 
of  brush  to  keep  off  the  wind  and  rain.  They  kill  deer, 
wild  pigs,  monkeys,  and  birds,  and  in  hunting  they  are 
very  expert;  but  their  principal  food  is  wild  roots  and 
tubers,  which  they  roast  in  ashes.  Frequently  in  travel- 
ing through  the  mountains,  although  one  may  see  nothing 
of  these  timid  little  folk,  he  will  see  many  large,  freshly 
dug  holes  from  each  of  which  they  have  taken  out  a  root. 

The  Negritos  ornament  their  bodies  by  making  little 
rows  of  cuts  on  the  breast,  back,  and  arms,  and  leaving 
the  scars  in  ornamental  patterns;  and  some  of  them  also 
cut  their  front  teeth  to  points.  In  their  hair  they  wear 
bamboo  combs  with  long  plumes  of  hair  or  of  the  feathers 
of  the  mountain  cock.  They  have  curious  dances,  and 
ceremonies  for  marriage  and  for  death. 

Distribution.  —  The  Negritos  have  retired  from  many 
places  where  they  lived  when  the  Spaniards  first  arrived, 
but  there  are  still  several  thousand  in  Luzon,  especially  in 
the  Cordillera  Zambales,  and  in  the  Sierra  Madre  range  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  in  the  interior  of  Panay  and  Negros, 
and  in  Surigao  of  Mindanao. 

Relation  of  the  Negritos  to  Other  Dwarfs  of  the 
World.  —  Although  the  Negritos  have  had  very  little  ef- 
fect on  the  history  of  the  Philippines,  they  are  of  much 
interest  as  a  race  to  scientists,  and  we  can  not  help  asking, 
Whence  came  these  curious  little  people,  and  what  does 
their  presence  here  signify?  While  science  can  not  at 
present  fully  answer  these  questions,  what  we  do  actually 
know  about  these  pygmies  is  full  of  interest. 

The  Aetas  of  the  Philippines  are  not  the  only  black 
dwarfs  in  the  world.  A  similar  little  people,  who  must 


RACES  AND  PEOPLES  OF  THE 
PHILIPPINES 


H  Filipinos  (Christianized  Peoples) 
Primitive  Malayan  Tribei(Pagani) 


Longitude      120  East  from  121     Greenwich 


THE  PEOPLES   OF   THE  PHILIPPINES.  31 

belong  to  the  same  race,  live  in  the  mountains  and  jungles 
of  the  Malay  peninsula  and  are  called  "  Semangs."  On 
the  Andaman  Islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  all  the  aborig- 
inal inhabitants  are  similar  pygmies.  Some  traces  of 
their  former  existence  are  reported  from  many  other 
places  in  the  East  Indies. 

Thus  it  may  be  that  there  was  a  time  when  these  little 
men  and  women  had  much  of  this  island-world  quite  to 
tlu'inselves,  and  their  race  stretched  unbrokenly  from  the 
Philippines  across  Malaysia  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  As  it 
would  have  been  impossible  for  so  feeble  a  people  to 
force  their  way  from  one  island  to  another  after  the 
arrival  of  the  stronger  races,  who  have  now  confined 
them  to  the  mountainous  interiors,  we  are  obliged  to 
believe  that  the  Negritos  were  on  the  ground  first,  and 
that  at  one  time  they  were  more  numerous.  The  Indian 
archipelago  was  then  a  world  of  black  pygmies.  It 
may  be  that  they  were  even  more  extensive  than  this, 
for  one  of  the  most  curious  discoveries  of  modern  times 
has  been  the  finding  of  similar  little  blacks  in  the  equa- 
torial forests  of  Africa. 

The  Negritos  must  not  be  confused  with  the  black  or 
negro  race  of  New  Guinea  or  Melanesia,  who  are  com- 
monly called  Papuans;  for  those  Negroes  are  of  tall 
stature  and  belong  with  the  true  Negroes  of  Africa, 
though  how  the  Negro  race  thus  came  to  be  formed  of 
several  widely  separated  branches  we  do  not  know. 

The  Malayan  Race.  —  Origin  of  the  Race.  —  It  is 
thought  that  the  Malayan  race  originated  in  southeastern 
Asia.  From  the  mainland  it  spread  down  into  the  pen- 
insula and  so  scattered  southward  and  eastward  over 
the  rich  neighboring  islands.  Probably  these  early  Ma- 
layans found  the  little  Negritos  in  possession  and  slowly 


32  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

drove  them  backward,  destroying  them  from  many  islands 
until  they  no  longer  exist  except  in  the  places  we  have 
already  named. 

With  the  beginning  of  this  migratory  movement  which 
carried  them  from  one  island  to  another  of  the  great  East 
Indian  Archipelago,  these  early  Malayans  must  have  in- 
vented the  boats  or  praus  for  which  they  are  famed  and 
have  become  skillful  sailors  living  much  upon  the  sea. 

Effect  of  the  Migration.  —  Life  for  many  generations, 
upon  these  islands,  so  warm,  tropical,  and  fruitful,  gradu- 
ually  modified  these  emigrants  from  Asia,  until  they  be- 
came in  mind  and  body  quite  a  different  race  from  the 
Mongol  inhabitants  of  the  mainland. 

Characteristics.  —  The  Malayan  peoples  are  of  a  light- 
brown  color,  with  a  light  yellowish  undertone  on  some 
parts  of  the  skin,  with  straight  black  hair,  dark-brown 
eyes,  and,  though  they  are  a  small  race  in  stature,  they 
are  finely  formed,  muscular,  and  active.  The  physical 
type  is  nearly  the  same  throughout  all  Malaysia,  but  the 
different  peoples  making  up  the  race  differ  markedly  from 
one  another  in  culture.  They  are  divided  also  by  differ- 
ences of  religion.  There  are  many  tribes  which  are  pagan. 
On  .  Bali  and  Lombok,  little  islands  east  of  Java,  the 
people  are  still  Brahmin,  like  most  inhabitants  of  India. 
In  other  parts  of  Malaysia  they  are  Mohammedans,  while 
in  the  Philippines  alone  they  are  mostly  Christians. 

The  Wild  Malayan  Tribes.  —  Considering  first  the  pagan 
or  the  wild  Malayan  peoples,  we  find  that  in  the  interior 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  of  many  of  the  islands,  such 
as  Sumatra,  Borneo  and  Celebes,  there  are  wild  Malayan 
tribes,  who  have  come  very  little  in  contact  with  the 
successive  civilizing  changes  that  have  passed  over  this 
archipelago.  The  true  Malays  call  these  folk  "  Orang 


THE  PEOPLES   OF   THE  PHILIPPINES.  33 

benua,"  or  "men  of  the  country."  Many  are  almost 
savages,  some  are  cannibals,  and  others  are  headhunters 
like  some  of  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo. 

In  the  Philippines,  too,  we  find  what  is  probably  this 
same  class  of  wild  people  living  in  the  mountains.  They  are 
warlike,  savage,  and  resist  approach.  Sometimes  they  eat 
human  flesh  as  a  ceremonial  act,  and  some  prize  above  all 
other  trophies  the  heads  of  their  enemies,  which  they  cut 
from  the  body  and  preserve  in  then*  homes.  It  is  probable 
that  these  tribes  represent  the  earliest  and  rudest  epoch 
of  Malayan  culture,  and  that  these  were  the  first  of  this 
race  to  arrive  in  the  Philippines  and  dispute  with  the  Ne- 
gritos for  the  mastery  of  the  soil.  In  such  wild  state  of 
life,  some  of  them,  like  the  Mangyans  of  Mindoro,  have 
continued  to  the  present  day. 

The  Tribes  in  Northern  Luzon.  —  In  northern  Luzon, 
in  the  great  Cordillera  Central,  there  are  many  of  these  primi- 
tive tribes.  These  people  are  preeminently  mountaineers. 
They  prefer  the  high,  cold,  and  semi-arid  crests  and  val- 
leys of  the  loftiest  ranges.  Here,  with  great  industry,  they 
have  made  gardens  by  the  building  of  stone-walled  ter- 
races on  the  slopes  of  the  hills.  Sometimes  hundreds  of 
these  terraces  can  be  counted  in  one  valley,  and  they  rise  one 
above  the  other  from  the  bottom  of  a  canon  for  several 
miles  almost  to  the  summit  of  a  ridge.  These  terraced 
gardens  are  all  under  most  careful  irrigation.  Water  is 
carried  for  many  miles  by  log  flumes  and  ditches,  to  be  dis- 
tributed over  these  little  fields.  The  soil  is  carefully  fer- 
tilized with  the  refuse  of  the  villages.  Two  and  frequently 
three  crops  are  produced  each  year.  Here  we  find  un- 
doubtedly the  most  developed  and  most  nearly  scientific 
agriculture  in  the  Philippines.  They  raise  rice,  cotton, 
tobacco,  the  taro,  maize,  and  especially  the  camote,  or 


34  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

sweet  potato,  which  is  their  principal  food.  These  people 
live  in  compact,  well-built  villages,  frequently  of  several 
hundred  houses.  Some  of  these  tribes,  like  the  Igorots 
of  Benguet  and  the  Tingians  of  Abra,  are  peaceable  as 
well  as  industrious.  In  Benguet  there  are  fine  herds  of 
cattle,  much  excellent  coffee,  and  from  time  immemorial 
the  Igorots  here  have  mined  gold. 

Besides  these  peaceful  tribes  there  are  in  Bontok,  and 
in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Cordillera,  many  large  tribes, 
with  splendid  mountain  villages,  who  are  nevertheless  in  a 
constant  and  dreadful  state  of  war.  Nearly  every  town 
is  in  feud  with  its  neighbors,  and  the  practice  of  taking 
heads  leads  to  frequent  murder  and  combat.  A  most 
curious  tribe  of  persistent  headhunters  are  the  Ibilao,  or 
Ilungots,  who  live  in  the  Caraballo  Sur  Mountains  between 
Nueva  Ecija  and  Nueva  Vizcaya. 

On  other  islands  of  the  Philippines  there  are  similar 
wild  tribes.  On  the  island  of  Palawan  there  are  the  Tag- 
banwas  and  other  savage  folk. 

Characteristics  of  the  Tribes  of  Mindanao.  —  In 
Mindanao,  there  are  many  more  tribes.  Three  of  these 
tribes,  the  Bagobo,  Mandaya,  and  Manobo,  are  on  the  east- 
ern coast  and  around  Mount  Apo.  In  Western  Mindanao, 
there  is  quite  a  large  but  scattered  tribe  called  the  Sub- 
anon.  These  people  make  clearings  on  the  hillsides  and 
support  themselves  by  raising  maize  and  mountain  rice. 
They  also  raise  hemp,  and  from  the  fiber  they  weave  truly 
beautiful  blankets  and  garments,  artistically  dyed  in  very 
curious  patterns.  These  peoples  are  nearly  all  pagans, 
though  a  few  are  being  gradually  converted  to  Moham- 
medanism, and  some  to  Christianity.  The  pagans  occa- 
sionally practice  the  revolting  rites  of  human  sacrifice  and 
ceremonial  cannibalism. 


THE  PEOPLES   OF  THE  PHILIPPINES.  35 

The  Civilized  Malayan  Peoples.  —  Their  Later  Arrival. 
—  At  a  later  date  than  the  arrival  of  these  primitive 
Malayan  tribes,  there  came  to  the  Philippines  others 
of  a  more  developed  culture  and  a  higher  order  of  intel- 
ligence. These  peoples  mastered  the  low  country  and  the 
coasts  of  nearly  all  the  islands,  driving  into  the  interior 
the  earlier  comers  and  the  aboriginal  Negritos.  These 
later  arrivals,  though  all  of  one  stock,  differed  considerably, 
and  spoke  different  dialects  belonging  to  one  language 
family.  They  were  the  ancestors  of  the  present  civilized 
Filipino  people. 

Distribution  of  These  Peoples.—  All  through  the  cen- 
tral islands,  Cebu,  Panay,  Negros,  Leyte,  Samar,  Bohol 
and    northern    Min- 
danao,   are    the    Bi- 
sayas,  the  largest  of 
these  peoples.    At  the 
southern      extremity 
of     Luzon,     in     the 
provinces    of    Sorso- 
gon   and   the   Cama-  Beit  of  Rattan, 

rines,  are  the  Bikols. 

North  of  these,  holding  central  Luzon,  Batangas,  Cavite, 
Manila,  Laguna,  Bataan,  Bulacan,  and  Nueva  Ecija,  are 
the  Tagalogs,  while  the  great  plain  of  northern  Luzon  is 
occupied  by  the  Pampangos  and  Pangasinans.  All  the 
northwest  coast  is  inhabited  by  the  Ilokanos,  and  the 
valley  of  the  Cagayan  by  a  people  commonly  called  Caga- 
yanes,  but  whose  dialect  is  Ibanag.  In  Nueva  Vizcaya 
province,  on  the  Batanes  Islands  and  the  Calamianes, 
there  are  other  distinct  branches  of  the  Filipino  people, 
but  they  are  much  smaller  in  numbers  and  less  important 
than  the  tribes  mentioned  above. 


36 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


Importance  of  These  Peoples.  —  They  form  politically 
and  historically  the  Filipino  people.  They  are  the 
Filipinos  whom  the  Spaniards  ruled  for  more  than  three 
hundred  years.  All  are  converts  to  Christianity,  and  all 
have  attained  a  somewhat  similar  stage  of  civilization. 

Early  Contact  of  the  Malays  and  Hindus.  —  These  peo- 
ple at  the  time  of  their  arrival  in  the  Philippines  were 
probably  not  only  of  a  higher  plane  of  intelligence  than  any 


Mindanao  Brass  Vessels. 

who  had  preceded  them  in  the  occupation  of  the  islands, 
but  they  appear  to  have  had  the  advantages  of  contact 
with  a  highly  developed  culture  that  had  appeared  in  the 
eastern  archipelago  some  centuries  earlier. 

Early  Civilization  in  India.  —  More  than  two  thou- 
sand years  ago,  India  produced  a  remarkable  civili- 
zation. There  were  great  cities  of  stone,  magnificent 
palaces,  a  life  of  splendid  luxury,  and  a  highly  organized 
social  and  political  system.  Writing,  known  as  the  San- 
skrit, had  been  developed,  and  a  great  literature  of  poetry 


THE  PEOPLES  OF   THE  PHILIPPINES.  37 

and  philosophy  produced.  Two  great  religions,  Brahmin- 
ism  and  Buddhism,  arose,  the  latter  still  the  dominant 
religion  of  Tibet,  China,  and  Japan.  The  people  who  pro- 
duced this  civilization  are  known  as  the  Hindus.  Fourteen 
or  fifteen  hundred  years  ago  Hinduism  spread  over  Burma, 
Siam,  and  Java.  Great  cities  were  erected  with  splendid 
temples  and  huge  idols,  the  ruins  of  which  still  remain, 
though  their  magnificence  has  gone  and  they  are  covered 
to-day  with  the  growth  of  the  jungle. 

Influence  of  Hindu  Culture  on  the  Malayan  Peoples. 
—  This  powerful  civilization  of  the  Hindus,  established 
thus  in  Malaysia,  greatly  affected  the  Malayan  people  on 
these  islands,  as  well  as  those  who  came  to  the  Philip- 
pines. Many  words  in  the  Tagalog  have  been  shown 
to  have  a  Sanskrit  origin,  and  the  systems  of  writing 
which  the  Spaniards  found  in  use  among  several  of  the 
Filipino  peoples  had  certainly  been  developed  from  the 
alphabet  then  in  use  among  these  Hindu  peoples  of 
Java. 

The  Rise  of  Mohammedanism. — Mohammed. — A  few 
hundred  years  later  another  great  change,  due  to  religious 
faith,  came  over  the  Malayan  race,  —  a  change  which  has 
had  a  great  effect  upon  the  history  of  the  Philippines,  and 
is  still  destined  to  modify  events  far  into  the  future.  This 
was  the  conversion  to  Mohammedanism.  Of  all  the  great 
religions  of  the  world,  Mohammedanism  was  the  last  to 
arise,  and  its  career  has  in  some  ways  been  the  most  re- 
markable. Mohammed,  its  founder,  was  an  Arab,  born 
about  572  A.D.  At  that  time  Christianity  was  established 
entirely  around  the  Mediterranean  and  throughout  most 
of  Europe,  but  Arabia  was  idolatrous.  Mohammed  was 
one  of  those  great,  prophetic  souls  which  arise  from  time 
to  time  in  the  world's  history.  All  he  could  learn  from 


38  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

Hebraism  and  Christianity,  together  with  the  result  of 
his  own  thought  and  prayers,  led  him  to  the  belief  in  one 
God,  the  Almighty,  the  Compassionate,  the  Merciful,  who 
as  he  believed  would  win  all  men  to  His  knowledge  through 
the  teachings  of  Mohammed  himself.  Thus  inspired,  Mo- 
hammed became  a  teacher  or  prophet,  and  by  the  end  of 
his  life  he  had  won  his  people  to  his  faith  and  inaugurated 
one  of  the  greatest  eras  of  conquest  the  world  has  seen. 

Spread  of  Mohammedanism  to  Africa  and  Europe. 
—  The  armies  of  Arabian  horsemen,  full  of  fanatical 
enthusiasm  to  convert  the  world  to  their  faith,  in  a 
century's  time  wrested  from  Christendom  all  Judea, 
Syria,  and  Asia  Minor,  the  sacred  land  where  Jesus  lived 
and  taught,  and  the  countries  where  Paul  and  the  other 
apostles  had  first  established  Christianity.  Thence  they 
swept  along  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  bringing  to  an  end  all 
that  survived  of  Roman  power  and  religion,  and  by  720 
they  had  crossed  into  Europe  and  were  in  possession  of 
Spain.  For  the  nearly  eight  hundred  years  that  followed, 
the  Christian  Spaniards  fought  to  drive  Mohammedanism 
from  the  peninsula,  before  they  were  successful. 

The  Conversion  of  the  Malayans  to  Mohammed- 
anism.—  Not  only  did  Mohammedanism  move  west- 
ward over  Africa  and  Europe,  it  was  carried  eastward  as 
well.  Animated  by  their  faith,  the  Arabs  became  the 
greatest  sailors,  explorers,  merchants,  and  geographers  of 
the  age.  They  sailed  from  the  Red  Sea  down  the  coast  of 
Africa  as  far  as  Madagascar,  and  eastward  to  India,  where 
they  had  settlements  on  both  the  Malabar  and  Coro- 
mandel  coasts.  Thence  Arab  missionaries  brought  their 
faith  to  Malaysia. 

At  that  time  the  true  Malays,  the  tribe  from  which 
the  common  term  "Malayan"  has  been  derived,  were  a 


40  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

small  people  of  Sumatra.  At  least  as  early  as  1250 
they  were  converted  to  Mohammedanism,  brought  to  them 
by  these  Arabian  missionaries,  and  under  the  impulse  of 
this  mighty  faith  they  broke  from  their  obscurity  and 
commenced  that  great  conquest  and  expansion  that  has 
diffused  their  power,  language,  and  religion  throughout 
the  East  Indies. 

Mohammedan  Settlement  in  Borneo.  —  A  powerful 
Mohammedan  Malay  settlement  was  established  on  the 
western  coasts  of  Borneo  probably  as  early  as  1400.  The 
more  primitive  inhabitants,  like  the  Dyaks,  who  were  a 
tribe  of  the  primitive  Malayans,  were  defeated,  and  the 
possession  of  parts  of  the  coast  taken  from  them.  From 
this  coast  of  Borneo  came  many  of  the  adventurers  who 
were  traversing  the  seas  of  the  Philippines  when  the 
Spaniards  arrived. 

The  Mohammedan  Population  of  Mindanao  and 
Jolo  owes  something  certainly  to  this  same  Malay  migra- 
tion which  founded  the  colony  of  Borneo.  But  the  Ma- 
gindanao  and  Illanon  Moros  seem  to  be  largely  descendants 
of  primitive  tribes,  such  as  the  Manobo  and  Tiruray,  who 
were  converted  to  Mohammedanism  by  Malay  and  Arab 
proselyters.  The  traditions  of  the  Magindanao  Moros 
ascribe  their  conversion  to  Kabunsuan,  a  native  of  Johore, 
the  son  of  an  Arab  father  and  Malay  mother.  He  came 
to  Magindanao  with  a  band  of  followers,  and  from  him 
the  datos  of  Magindanao  trace  their  lineage.  Kabun- 
suan, through  his  Arab  father,  is  supposed  to  be  descended 
from  Mohammed,  and  so  the  datos  of  Magindanao  to  the 
present  day  proudly  believe  that  in  their  veins  flows  the 
blood  of  the  Prophet. 

The  Coming  of  the  Spaniards.  —  Mohammedanism  was 
still  increasing  in  the  Philippines  when  the  Spaniards  ar- 


THE  PEOPLES   OF   THE  PHILIPPINES.  41 

rived.  The  Mohammedans  already  had  a  foothold  on 
Manila  Bay,  and  their  gradual  conquest  of  the  archipelago 
was  interrupted  only  by  the  coming  of  the  Europeans. 
It  is  a  strange  historical  occurrence  that  the  Spaniards, 
having  fought  with  the  Mohammedans  for  nearly  eight 
centuries  for  the  possession  of  Spain,  should  have  come 
westward  around  the  globe  to  the  Philippine  Islands 
and  there  resumed  the  ancient  conflict  with  them.  Thus 
the  Spaniards  were  the  most  determined  opponents  of 
Mohammedanism  on  both  its  western  and  eastern  frontiers. 
Their  ancient  foes  who  crossed  into  Spain  from  Morocco 
had  been  always  known  as  "Moros"  or  "Moors,"  and 
quite  naturally  they  gave  to  these  new  Mohammedan 
enemies  the  same  title,  and  Moros  they  are  called  to  the 
present  day. 

Summary.  —  Such,  then,  are  the  elements  which  form 
the  population  of  these  islands,  —  a  few  thousands  of  the 
little  Negritos;  many  wild  mountain  tribes  of  the  primi- 
tive Malayans;  a  later  immigration  of  Malayans  of  higher 
cultivation  and  possibilities  than  any  that  preceded  them, 
who  had  been  influenced  by  the  Hinduism  of  Java  and 
who  have  had  in  recent  centuries  an  astonishing  growth 
both  in  numbers  and  in  culture;  and  last,  the  fierce 
Mohammedan  sea-rovers,  the  true  Malays. 


Copy  of  the  Koran  from  Mindanao. 


CHAPTER  III. 
EUROPE  AND  THE  FAR  EAST  ABOUT  1400  A.D. 

The  Mediaeval  Period  in  Europe.  —  Length  of  the 
Middle  Age.  —  By  the  Middle  Ages  we  mean  the  cen- 
turies between  500  and  1300  A.D.  This  period  begins  with 
the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  and  the  looting  of  the 
Imperial  City  by  the  rude  German  tribes,  and  ends  with 
the  rise  of  a  new  literature,  a  new  way  of  looking  at  the 
world  in  general,  and  a  passion  for  discovery  of  every 
kind. 

These  eight  hundred  years  had  been  centuries  of  cruel 
struggle,  intellectual  darkness,  and  social  depression,  but 
also  of  great  religious  devotion.  Edward  Gibbon,  one  of 
the  greatest  historians,  speaks  of  this  period  as  "  the 
triumph  of  barbarism  and  religion." 

The  population  of  Europe  was  largely  changed,  during 
the  first  few  centuries  of  the  Christian  Era,  as  the  Roman 
Empire,  that  greatest  political  institution  of  all  history, 
slowly  decayed.  New  peoples  of  German  or  Teutonic 
origin  came,  fighting  their  way  into  western  Europe  and 
settling  wherever  the  land  attracted  them.  Thus  Spain 
and  Italy  received  the  Goths;  France,  the  Burgundians 
and  Franks;  England,  the  Saxons  and  Angles  or  English. 

These  peoples  were  all  fierce,  warlike,  free,  unlettered 
barbarians.  Fortunately,  they  were  all  converted  to 
Christianity  by  Roman  priests  and  missionaries.  They 
embraced  this  faith  with  ardor,  at  the  same  time  that 
'  other  peoples  and  lands  were  being  lost  to  Christendom. 
Thus  it  has  resulted  that  the  countries  where  Christianity 

42 


EUROPE  AND  THE  FAR  EAST  ABOUT  1400  A.D.      43 

arose  and  first  established  itself,  are  now  no  longer  Chris- 
tian, and  this  religion,  which  had  an  Asiatic  and  Semitic 
origin,  has  become  the  distinguishing  faith  of  the  people 
of  western  Europe.  For  centuries  the  countries  of  Europe 
were  fiercely  raided  and  disturbed  by  pillaging  and  mur- 
dering hordes;  by  the  Huns,  who  followed  in  the  Germans 
from  the  East ;  by  the  Northmen,  cruel  pirating  seamen 
from  Scandinavia;  and,  as  we  have  already  seen,  by  the 
Mohammedans,  or  Saracens  as  they  were  called,  who 
came  into  central  Europe  by  way  of  Spain. 

Character  of  the  Life  during  this  Period. — Feudalism. 
—  Life  was  so  beset  with  peril  that  independence  or  free- 
dom became  impossible,  and  there  was  developed  a  so- 
ciety which  has  lasted  almost  down  to  the  present  time, 
and  which  we  call  Feudalism.  The  free  but  weak  man 
gave  up  his  freedom  and  his  lands  to  some  stronger  man, 
who  became  his  lord.  He  swore  obedience  to  this  lord, 
while  the  lord  engaged  to  furnish  him  protection  and  gave 
him  back  his  lands  to  hold  as  a  "fief,"  both  sharing  hi 
the  product.  This  lord  swore  allegiance  to  some  still 
more  powerful  man,  or  "overlord,"  and  became  his  "vas- 
sal," pledged  to  follow  him  to  war  with  a  certain  number 
of  armed  men;  and  this  overlord,  on  his  part,  owed  allegi- 
ance to  the  prince,  who  was,  perhaps,  a  duke  or  bishop 
(bishops  at  this  time  were  also  feudal  lords),  or  to  the  king 
or  emperor.  Thus  were  men  united  into  large  groups  or 
nations  for  help  or  protection.  There  was  little  under- 
standing of  love  of  country.  Patriotism,  as  we  feel  it, 
was  replaced  by  the  passion  of  fidelity  or  allegiance  to 
one's  feudal  superior. 

Disadvantages  of  Feudalism.  — The  great  curse  of  this 
system  was  that  the  feudal  lords  possessed  the  power  to 
make  war  upon  one  another,  and  so  continuous  were 


44 


EUROPE  AND   THE  FAR  EAST  ABOUT  1400  A.D.      45 

their  jealousies  and  quarrelings  that  the  land  was  never 
free  from  armed  bands,  who  laid  waste  an  opponent's  coun- 
try, killing  the  miserable  serfs  who  tilled  the  soil,  and  de- 
stroying their  homes  and  cattle. 

There  was  little  joy  in  We  and  no  popular  learning. 
If  a  man  did  not  enjoy  warfare,  but  one  other  life  was 
open  to  him,  and  that  was  in  the  Church.  War  and 
religion  were  the  pursuits  of  life,  and  it  is  no  wonder 
that  many  of  the  noblest  and  best  turned  their  backs 
upon  a  life  that  promised  only  fighting  and  bloodshed 
and,  renouncing  the  world,  became  monks.  Monasticism 
developed  in  Europe  under  such  conditions  as  these,  and 
so  strong  were  the  religious  feelings  of  the  age  that  at  one 
time  a  third  of  the  land  of  France  was  owned  by  the  re- 
ligious orders. 

The  Town.  —  The  two  typical  institutions  of  the  early 
Middle  Age  were  the  feudal  castle,  with  its  high  stone 
walls  and  gloomy  towers,  with  its  fierce  bands  of  warriors 
armed  in  mail  and  fighting  on  horseback  with  lance  and 
sword,  and  the  monastery,  which  represented  inn,  hospi- 
tal, and  school.  Gradually,  however,  a  third  factor 
appeared.  This  was  the  town.  And  it  is  to  these  media> 
val  cities,  with  their  busy  trading  life,  their  free  citizen- 
ship, and  their  useful  occupations,  that  the  modern  world 
owes  much  of  its  liberty  and  its  intellectual  light. 

The  Renaissance.  —  Changes  in  Political  Affairs.  — 
By  1400,  however,  the  Middle  Age  had  nearly  passed  and 
a  new  life  had  appeared,  a  new  epoch  was  in  progress, 
which  is  called  the  Renaissance,  which  means  "  rebirth." 
In  political  affairs  the  spirit  of  nationality  had  arisen,  and 
feudalism  was  already  declining.  Men  began  to  feel  attach- 
ment to  country,  to  king,  and  to  fellow-citizens;  and  the 
national  states,  as  we  now  know  them,  each  with  its 


46  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

naturally  bounded  territory,  its  common  language,  and  its 
approximately  common  race,  were  appearing. 

France  and  England  were,  of  these  states,  the  two 
most  advanced  politically  just  previous  to  the  fifteenth 
century.  At  this  distant  time  they  were  still  engaged  in 
a  struggle  which  lasted  quite  a  century  and  is  known  as 
the  Hundred  Years'  War.  In  the  end,  England  was  forced 
to  give  up  all  her  claims  to  territory  on  the  continent,  and 
the  power  of  France  was  correspondingly  increased.  In 
France  the  mpnarchy  (king  and  court)  was  becoming  the 
supreme  power  in  the  land.  The  feudal  nobles  lost  what 
power  they  had,  while  the  common  people  gained  nothing. 
In  England,  however,  the  foundations  for  a  representa- 
tive government  had  been  laid.  The  powers  of  legislation 
and  government  were  divided  between  the  English  king 
,•'  and  a  Parliament.  The  Parliament  was  first  called  in 
1265  and  consisted  of  two  parts,  —  the  Lords,  represent- 
ing the  nobility;  and  the  Commons,  composed  of  persons 
chosen  by  the  common  people. 

Germany  was  divided  into  a  number  of  small  princi- 
palities, —  Saxony,  Bavaria,  Franconia,  Bohemia,  Austria, 
the  Rhine  principalities,  and  many  others,  —  which  united 
in  a  great  assembly,  or  Diet,  the  head  of  which  was 
some  prince,  chosen  to  be  emperor. 

Italy  was  also  divided.  In  the  north,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Po,  or  Lombardy,  were  the  duchy  of  Milan  and  the  Repub- 
lic of  Venice;  south,  on  the  western  coast,  were  the  Tuscan 
states,  including  the  splendid  city  of  Florence.  Thence, 
stretching  north  and  south  across  the  peninsula,  were 
states  of  the  church,  whose  ruler  was  the  pope,  for  until  less 
than  fifty  years  ago  the  pope  was  not  only  the  head  of  the 
church  but  also  a  temporal  ruler.  Embracing  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  peninsula  was  the  principality  of  Naples. 


EUROPE  AND  THE  FAR  EAST  ABOUT  UOO  A.D.      47 

In,  the  Spanish  peninsula  Christian  states  had  arisen, 
—  in  the  west,  Portugal,  hi  the  center  and  east,  Castile, 
Aragon,  and  Leon,  from  all  of  which  the  Mohammedans 
had  been  expelled.  But  the  Moors  still  held  the  southern 
parts  of  Spain,  including  the  beautiful  plains  of  Andalusia 
and  Grenada. 

The  Mohammedans,  in  the  centuries  of  their  life  in 
Spain,  had  developed  an  elegant  and  prosperous  civiliza- 
tion. By  means  of  irrigation  and  skillful  planting,  they 
had  converted  southern  Spain  into  a  garden.  They  were 
the  most  skillful  agriculturists  and  breeders  of  horses  and 
sheep  in  Europe,  and  they  carried  to  perfection  many  fine 
arts,  while  knowledge  and  learning  were  nowhere  further 
advanced  than  here.  Through  contact  with  this  remark- 
able people  the  Christian  Spaniards  gained  much.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  the  spirit  of  religious  intolerance  was 
so  strong,  and  the  hatred  engendered  by  the  centuries  of 
religious  war  was  so  violent,  that  in  the  end  the  Spaniard 
became  imbued  with  so  fierce  a  fanaticism  that  he  there- 
after appeared  unable  properly  to  appreciate  or  justly  to 
treat  those  who  differed  from  him  in  religious  belief. 

The  Conquests  of  the  Mohammedans.  —  In  the  fif- 
teenth century,  religious  toleration  was  but  little  known 
in  the  world,  and  the  people  of  the  great  Mohammedan 
faith  still  threatened  to  overwhelm  Christian  Europe. 
Since  the  first  great  conquests  of  Islam  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury had  been  repulsed  from  central  Europe,  that  faith  had 
shown  a  wonderful  power  of  winning  its  way.  In  the 
tenth  century  Asia  Minor  was  invaded  by  hordes  of  Sel- 
juks,  or  Turks,  who  poured  down  from  central  Asia  hi 
conquering  bands.  These  tribes  had  overthrown  the 
Arab's  power  in  Mesopotamia  and  Asia  Minor  only  to 
become  converts  to  his  faith.  With  freshened  zeal  they 


48  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

hurled  themselves  upon  the  old  Christian  empire,  which 
at  Constantinople  had  survived  the  fall  of  the  rest  of  the 
Roman  world. 

The  Crusades. — The  Seljuk  Turks  had  conquered  most 
of  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  the  Holy  Land.  A  great  fear 
came  over  the  people  of  Europe  that  the  city  of  Constan- 
tinople would  be  captured  and  they,  too,  be  overwhelmed 
by  these  new  Mohammedan  enemies.  The  passionate 
religious  zeal  of  the  Middle  Age  also  roused  the  princes 
and  knights  of  Europe  to  try  to  wrest  from  the  infidel  the 
Holy  Land  of  Palestine,  where  were  the  birthplace  of  Chris- 
tianity and  the  site  of  the  Sepulcher  of  Christ.  Palestine 
was  recovered  and  Christian  states  were  established  there, 
which  lasted  for  over  a  hundred  and  eighty  years.  Then 
the  Arab  power  revived  and,  operating  from  Egypt,  finally 
retook  Jerusalem  and  expelled  the  Christian  from  the 
Holy  Land,  to  which  he  has  never  yet  returned  as  a  con- 
queror. 

Effects  of  the  Crusades.  —  These  long,  holy  wars,  or 
"Crusades,"  had  a  profound  effect  upon  Europe.  The 
rude  Christian  warrior  from  the  west  was  astonished  and 
delighted  with  the  splendid  and  luxurious  life  which  he 
met  at  Constantinople  and  the  Arabian  East.  Even  though 
he  was  a  prince,  his  life  at  home  was  barren  of  comforts 
and  beauty.  Glass,  linen,  rugs,  tapestries,  silk,  cotton, 
spices,  and  sugar  were  some  of  the  things  which  the 
Franks  and  the  Englishmen  took  home  with  them  from 
the  Holy  Land.  Demand  for  these  treasures  of  the  East 
became  irresistible,  and  trade  between  western  Europe 
and  the  East  grew  rapidly. 

The  Commercial  Cities  of  Italy.  —  The  cities  of  Italy  de- 
veloped this  commerce.  They  placed  fleets  upon  the  Medi- 
terranean. They  carried  the  crusaders  out  and  brought 


EUROPE  AND  THE  FAR  EAST  ABOUT  1400  AJ>.      49 

back  the  wares  that  Europe  desired.  In  this  way  these 
cities  grew  and  became  very  wealthy.  On  the  west  coast, 
where  this  trade  began,  were  Amalfi,  Pisa,  Genoa,  and 
Florence,  and  on  the  east,  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic,  was 
Venice.  The  rivalry  between  these  cities  of  Italy  was 
very  fierce.  They  fought  and  plundered  one  another,  each 
striving  to  win  a  monopoly  for  itself  of  this  invaluable 
trade. 

Venice,  finally,  was  victorious.  Her  location  was  very 
favorable.  From  her  docks  the  wares  could  be  carried 
easily  and  by  the  shortest  routes  up  the  Po  River  and 
thence  into  France  or  northward  over  the  Alps  to  the 
Danube.  In  Bavaria  grew  up  in  this  trade  the  splendid 
German  cities  of  Augsburg  and  Nuremberg,  which  passed 
these  goods  on  to  the  cities  of  the  Rhine,  and  so  down 
this  most  beautiful  river  to  the  coast.  Here  the  towns  of 
Flanders  and  of  the  Low  Countries,  or  Holland,  received 
them  and  passed  them  on  again  to  England  and  eastward 
to  the  countries  of  the  Baltic. 

Development  of  Modern  Language.  —  Thus  commerce 
and  trade  grew  up  in  Europe,  and,  with  trade  and  city 
life,  greater  intelligence,  learning,  and  independence. 
Education  became  more  common,  and  the  universities  of 
Europe  were  thronged.  Latin  in  the  Middle  Age  had  been 
the  only  language  that  was  written  by  the  learned  class. 
Now  the  modern  languages  of  Europe  took  their  form  and 
began  to  be  used  for  literary  purposes.  Italian  was  the 
first  to  be  so  used  by  the  great  Dante,  and  in  the  same 
half-century  the  English  poet  Chaucer  sang  in  the  homely 
English  tongue,  and  soon  in  France,  Germany,  and  Spain 
national  literatures  appeared.  With  this  went  greater  free- 
dom of  expression.  Authority  began  to  have  less  weight. 
Men  began  to  inquire  into  causes  and  effects,  to  doubt 


EUROPE  AND  THE  FAR  EAST  ABOUT  1400  A.D.      51 

certain  things,  to  seek  themselves  for  the  truth,  and  so 
the  Renaissance  came.  With  it  came  a  greater  love  for 
the  beautiful,  a  greater  joy  hi  life,  a  fresh  zest  for  the 
good  of  this  world,  a  new  passion  for  discovery,  a  thirst 
for  adventure,  and,  it  must  also  be  confessed  a  new  laxity 
of  living  and  a  new  greed  for  gold.  Christian  Europe  was 
about  to  burst  its  narrow  bounds.  It  could  not  be  re- 
pressed nor  confined  to  its  old  limitations.  It  could  never 
turn  backward.  Of  all  the  great  changes  which  have  come 
over  life  and  thought,  probably  none  are  greater  than 
those  which  saw  the  transition  from  the  mediaeval  to  the 
modern  world. 

Trade  with  the  East. — Articles  of  Trade.  —  Now  we 
must  go  back  for  a  moment  and  pursue  an  old  inquiry 
further.  Whence  came  all  these  beautiful  and  inviting 
wares  that  had  produced  new  tastes  and  passions  in 
Europe?  The  Italian  traders  drew  them  from  the  Levant, 
but  the  Levant  had  not  produced  them.  Neither  pepper, 
spices,  sugarcane,  costly  gems,  nor  rich  silks,  were  pro- 
duced on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Only  the  rich  tropical  countries  of  the  East  were  capable 
of  growing  these  rare  plants,  and  up  to  that  tune  of 
delivering  to  the  delver  many  precious  stones.  India, 
the  rich  Malaysian  archipelago,  the  kingdom  of  China,  — 
these  are  the  lands  and  islands  which  from  tune  imme- 
morial have  given  up  their  treasures  to  be  forwarded  far 
and  wide  to  amaze  and  delight  the  native  of  colder  and 
less  productive  lands. 

Routes  of  Trade  to  the  Far  East.  —  Three  old  sail- 
ing and  caravan  routes  connect  the  Mediterranean  with 
the  Far  East.  They  are  so  old  that  we  can  not  guess 
when  men  first  used  them.  They  were  old  in  the  days  of 
Solomon  and  indeed  very  ancient  when  Alexander  the 


52  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Great  conquered  the  East.  One  of  these  routes  passed 
through  the  Black  Sea,  and  around  the  Caspian  Sea, 
to  Turkestan  to  those  strange  and  romantic  ancient 
cities,  Bokhara  and  Samarkand.  Thence  it  ran  easterly 
across  Asia,  entering  China  from  the  north.  Another 
crossed  Syria  and  went  down  through  Mesopotamia  to  the 
Indian  Ocean.  A  third  began  in  Egypt  and  went  through 
the  Red  Sea,  passing  along  the  coast  of  Arabia  to  India. 

All  of  these  had  been  in  use  for  centuries,  but  by  the 
year  1400  two  had  been  closed.  A  fresh  immigration  of 
Turks,  the  Ottomans,  in  the  fourteenth  century  came 
down  upon  the  scourged  country  of  the  Euphrates  and 
Syria,  and  although  these  Turks  also  embraced  Moham- 
medanism, their  hostility  closed  the  first  two  routes  and 
commerce  over  them  has  never  been  fully  resumed. 

Venetian  Monopoly  of  Trade.  —  Thus  all  interest 
centered  upon  the  southern  route.  By  treaty  with  the 
sultan  or  ruler  of  Egypt,  Venice  secured  a  monopoly  of 
the  products  which  came  over  this  route.  Goods  from 
the  East  now  came  in  fleets  up  the  Red  Sea,  went  through 
the  hands  of  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  who  collected  a  duty 
for  them,  and  then  were  passed  on  to  the  ships  of  the 
wealthy  Venetian  merchant  princes,  who  carried  them 
throughout  Europe.  Although  the  object  of  intense  jeal- 
ousy, it  seemed  impossible  to  wrest  this  monopoly  from 
Venice.  Her  fleet  was  the  strongest  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  her  rule  extended  along  the  Adriatic  to  the  Grecian 
islands.  All  eager  minds  were  bent  upon  the  trade  with 
the  East,  but  no  way  was  known,  save  that  which  now 
Venice  had  gained. 

Extent  of  Geographical  Knowledge.  —  The  Maps  of 
this  Period.  —  To  realize  Kow  the  problem  looked  to  the 
sailor  of  Genoa  or  the  merchant  of  Flanders  at  that  time, 


EUROPE  AND  THE  FAR  EAST  ABOUT  1400  A.D.      53 

we  must  understand  how  scanty  and  erroneous  was  the 
geographical  knowledge  of  even  the  fifteenth  century.  It 
was  believed  that  Jerusalem  was  the  center  of  the  world, 
a  belief  founded  upon  a  biblical  passage.  The  maps  of 
this  and  earlier  dates  represent  the  earth  in  this  way: 
In  the  center,  Palestine,  and  beneath  it  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  the  only  body  of  water  which  was  well  known;  on 
the  left  side  is  Europe;  on  the  right,  Africa;  and  at  the 
top,  Asia  —  the  last  two  continents  very  indefinitely 
mapped.  Around  the  whole  was  supposed  to  flow  an 
ocean,  beyond  the  first  few  miles  of  which  it  was  perilous 
to  proceed  lest  the  ship  be  carried  over  the  edge  of  the 
earth  or  encounter  other  perils. 

Ideas  about  Hie  Earth.  — The  Greek  philosophers  be- 
fore the  time  of  Christ  had  discovered  that  the  world  is  a 
globe,  or  ball,  and  had  even  computed  rudely  its  circum- 
ference. But  in  the  Middle  Ages  this  knowledge  had 
been  disputed  and  contradicted  by  a  geographer  named 
Cosmas,  who  held  that  the  world  was  a  vast  plane,  twice 
as  long  as  it  was  broad  and  surrounded  by  an  ocean.  This 
belief  was  generally  adopted  by  churchmen,  who  were  the 
only  scholars  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  came  to  be  the  uni- 
versal belief  of  Christian  Europe. 

The  Renaissance  revived  the  knowledge  of  the  writ- 
ings of  the  old  Greek  geographers  who  had  demonstrated 
the  earth's  shape  to  be  round  and  had  roughly  calculated 
its  size;  but  these  writings  did  not  have  sufficient  circula- 
tion in  Europe  to  gain  much  acceptance  among  the  Chris- 
tian cosmographers.  The  Arabs,  however,  after  conquer- 
ing Egypt,  Syria  and  northern  Africa,  translated  into 
their  own  tongue  the  wisdom  of  the  Greeks  and  became 
the  best  informed  and  most  scientific  geographers  of  the 
Middle  Age,  so  that  intercourse  with  the  Arabs  which 


54  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

began  with  the  Crusades  helped  to  acquaint  Europe  some- 
what with  India  and  China. 

The  Far  East.  —  The  Tartar  Mongols.  —  Then  in  the 
thirteenth  century  all  northern  Asia  and  China  fell  under 
the  power  of  the  Tartar  Mongols.  Russia  was  overrun  by 
them  and  western  Europe  threatened.  At  the  Danube, 
however,  this  tide  of  Asiatic  conquest  stopped,  and  then 
followed  a  long  period  when  Europe  came  into  diplomatic 
and  commercial  relations  with  these  Mongols  and  through 
them  learned  something  of  China. 

Marco  Polo  Visits  the  Great  Kaan.  —  Several  Euro- 
peans visited  the  court  of  the  Great  Kaan,  or  Mongol 
king,  and  of  one  of  them,  Marco  Polo,  we  must  speak  in 
particular.    He  was  a  Venetian,  and  when  a  young  man 
started  in  1271  with  his  father  and  uncle  on  a  visit  to 
the  Great  Kaan.    They  passed  from  Italy  to  Syria,  across 
to  Bagdad,  -and  down  to  Ormuz,  whence  they  journeyed 
northward  through  upper  Persia  and  thence  across  the 
Pamirs  along  the  caravan  route  to  Kaipingfu,  where  the 
Kaan  had  his  court.    Here  in  the  service  of  this  prince 
Marco  Polo  spent  over  seventeen  years.    So  valuable  in- 
deed were  his  services  that  the  Kaan  would  not  permit 
him  to  return.     Year  after  year  he  remained  in  the  East. 
He  traversed  most  of  China,  and  was  for  a  time  "taotai," 
or  magistrate,  of  the  city  of  Yang  Chan  near  the  Yangtze 
River.     He  saw  the  amazing  wonders  of  the  East.     He 
heard  of  "Zipangu,"  or  Japan.     He  probably  heard  of 
the  Philippines. 

Finally  the  opportunity  came  for  the  three  Venetians 
to  return.  The  Great  Kaan  had  a  relative  who  was  a 
ruler  of  Persia,  and  ambassadors  came  from  this  ruler  to 
secure  a  Mongol  princess  for  him  to  marry.  The  dangers 
and  hardships  of  the  travel  overland  were  considered  too 


EUROPE  AND  THE  FAR  EAST  ABOUT  1400  A.D.      55 

difficult  for  the  delicate  princess,  and  it  was  decided  to 
send  her  by  water.  Marco  Polo  and  his  father  and  uncle 
were  commissioned  to  accompany  the  expedition  to 
Persia. 

History  of  Marco  Polo's  Travels.  —  They  sailed  from 
the  port  of  Chin  Cheu,  probably  near  Amoy,1  in  the  year 
1292.  They  skirted  the  coasts  of  Cambodia  and  Siam 
and  reached  the  eastern  coasts  of  Sumatra,  where  they 
waited  five  months  for  the  changing  of  the  monsoon. 
Of  the  Malay  people  of  Sumatra,  as  well  as  of  these 
islands,  their  animals  and  productions,  Marco  Polo  has 
left  us  most  interesting  and  quite  accurate  accounts.  The 
Malays  on  Sumatra  were  beginning  to  be  converted  to 
Mohammedanism,  for  Marco  Polo  says  that  many  of 
them  were  "Saracens."  He  gamed  a  good  knowledge  of 
the  rich  and  mysterious  Indian  Isles,  where  the  spices 
and  flavorings  grew.  It  was  two  years  before  the  party, 
having  crossed  the  Indian  Ocean,  reached  Persia  and 
the  court  of  the  Persian  king. .  When  they  arrived  they 
found  that  while  they  were  making  this  long  voyage  the 
Persian  king  had  died  ;  but  they  married  the  Mongol 
princess  to  his  son,  the  young  prince,  who  had  succeeded 
him,  and  that  did  just  as  well. 

From  Persia  the  Venetians  crossed  to  the  Black  Sea, 
sailed  for  Italy,  and  at  last  reached  home  after  an  absence 
of  twenty-four  years.  But  Marco  Polo's  adventures 
did  not  end  with  his  return  to  Venice.  In  a  fierce  sea 
fight  between  the  Venetians  and  Genoese,  he  was  made 

1  See  Yule's  Marco  Polo  for  a  discussion  of  this  point  and  for  the 
entire  history  of  this  great  explorer,  as  well  as  a  translation  of  his 
narrative.  The  book  of  Ser  Marco  Polo*  has  been  most  critically  edited 
with  introduction  and  voluminous  notes  by  this  English  scholar,  Sir 
Henry  Yule.  In  this  edition  the  accounts  of  Marco  Polo,  covering  so 
many  countries  and  peoples  of  the  Far  East,  can  be  studied. 


56  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

a  prisoner  and  confined  in  Genoa.  Here  a  fellow  captive 
wrote  down  from  Marco's  own  words  the  story  of  his 
eastern  adventures,  and  this  book  we  have  to-day.  It  is 
a  record  of  adventure,  travel,  and  description,  so  wonder- 
ful that  for  years  it  was  doubted  and  its  accuracy 
disbelieved.  But  since,  in  our  own  time,  men  have  been 
able  to  traverse  again  the  routes  over  which  Marco  Polo 
passed,  fact  after  fact  has  been  established,  quite  as  he 
truthfully  stated  them  centuries  ago.  To  have  been  the 
first  European  to  make  this  mighty  circuit  of  travel  is 
certainly  a  strong  title  to  enduring  fame. 

Countries  of  the  Far  East.  —  India.  —  Let  us  now 
briefly  look  at  the  countries  of  the  Far  East,  which  by 
the  year  1400  had  come  to  exercise  over  the  mind  of 
the  European  so  irresistible  a  fascination.  First  of  all, 
India,  as  we  have  seen,  had  for  centuries  been  the  prin- 
cipal source  of  the  western  commerce.  But  long  before 
the  date  we  are  considering,  the  scepter  of  India  had 
fallen  from  the  hand  of  the  Hindu.  From  the  seventh 
century,  India  was  a  prey  to  Mohammedan  conquerors, 
who  entered  from  the  northwest  into  the  valley  of  the 
Indus.  At  first  these  were  Saracens  or  Arabs;  later 
they  were  the  same  Mongol  converts  to  Mohammedanism, 
whose  attacks  upon  Europe  we  have  already  noticed. 

In  1398  came  the  furious  and  bloody  warrior,  the 
greatest  of  all  Mongols,  —  Timour,  or  Tamerlane.  He 
founded,  with  capital  at  Delhi,  the  empire  of  the  Great 
Mogul,  whose  rule  over  India  was  only  broken  by  the 
white  man.  Eastward  across  the  Ganges  and  in  the 
Dekkan,  or  southern  part  of  India,  were  states  ruled  over 
by  Indian  princes. 

China.  —  We  have  seen  how,  at  the  time  of  Marco 
Polo,  China  also  was  ruled  by  the  Tartar  Mongols.  The 


EUROPE  AND  THE  FAR  EAST  ABOUT  1400  A.D.      57 

Chinese  have  ever  been  subject  to  attack  from  the  wan- 
dering horse-riding  tribes  of  Siberia.  Two  hundred  years 
before  Christ  one  of  the  Chinese  kings  built  the  Great 
Wall  that  stretches  across  the  northern  frontier  for  one 
thousand  three  hundred  miles,  for  a  defense  against  north- 
ern foes.  Through  much  of  their  history  the  Chinese 
have  been  ruled  by  aliens,  as  they  are  to-day.  About 
1368,  however,  the  Chinese  overthrew  the  Mongol  rulers 
and  established  the  Ming  dynasty,  the  last  Chinese  house 
of  emperors,  who  ruled  China  until  1644,  when  the  Man- 
chus,  the  present  rulers,  conquered  the  country. 

China  was  great  and  prosperous  under  the  Mings.  Com- 
merce flourished  and  the  fleets  of  Chinese  junks  sailed  to 
India,  the  Malay  Islands,  and  to  the  Philippines  for  trade. 
The  Grand  Canal,  which  connects  Peking  with  the  Yangtze 
River  basin  and  Hangchau,  was  completed.  It  was  an 
age  of  fine  productions  of  literature. 

The  Chinese  seem  to  have  been  much  less  exclusive 
then  than  they  are  at  the  present  time;  much  less  a 
peculiar,  isolated  people  than  now.  They  did  not  then 
shave  their  heads  nor  wear  a  queue.  These  customs,  as 
well  as  that  hostility  to  foreign  intercourse  which  they 
have  to-day,  were  forced  upon  China  by  the  Manchus. 
China  appeared  at  that  time  ready  to  assume  a  position 
of  enormous  influence  among  the  peoples  of  the  earth,  — 
a  position  for  which  she  was  well  fitted  by  the  great 
industry  of  all  classes  and  the  high  intellectual  power  of 
her  learned  men. 

Japan.  —  Compared  with  China  or  India,  or  even  some 
minor  states,  the  development  of  Japan  at  this  time  was 
very  backward.  Her  people  were  divided  and  there  was 
constant  civil  war.  The  Japanese  borrowed  their  civiliza- 
tion from  the  Chinese.  From  them  they  learned  writing 


THE  COUNTRIES 
OF  THE  FAR  EAST 

IN  THE  16TH  CENTURY 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


0       200     MO      600      800     1000    1200 


Longitude       110  East  from  120        Greenwich 


58 


EUROPE  AND  THE  FAR  EAST  ABOUT  1400  A.D.      59 

and  literature,  and  the  Buddhist  religion,  which  was  in- 
troduced about  550  A.D.  But  in  temperament  they  are 
a  very  different  people,  being  spirited,  warlike,  and,  until 
recent  years,  have  despised  trading  and  commerce. 

Since  the  beginning  of  her  history,  Japan  has  been 
monarchical.  The  ruler,  the  Mikado,  is  believed  to  be  of 
heavenly  descent;  but  in  the  centuries  we  are  discussing 
the  government  was  controlled  by  powerful  nobles,  known 
as  the  Shoguns,  who  kept  the  emperors  in  retirement  in 
the  palaces  of  Kyoto,  and  themselves  directed  the  State. 
The  greatest  of  these  shoguns  was  lyeyasu,  who  ruled 
Japan  about  1600,  soon  after  Manila  was  founded.  They 
developed  in  Japan  a  species  of  feudalism,  the  great  lords, 
or  "daimios,"  owning  allegiance  to  the  shoguns,  and  about 
the  daimios,  as  feudal  retainers,  bodies  of  samurai,  who 
formed  a  partly  noble  class  of  their  own.  The  samurai 
carried  arms,  fought  at  their  lords'  command,  were  stu- 
dents and  literati,  and  among  them  developed  that  proud, 
loyal,  and  elevated  code  of  morality  known  as  "  Bushido," 
which  has  done  so  much  for  the  Japanese  people.  It  is 
this  samurai  class  who  in  modern  tunes  have  effected  the 
immense  revolution  in  the  condition  and  power  of  Japan. 

The  Malay  Archipelego .  —  If  now  we  look  at  the  Ma- 
lay Islands,  we  find,  as  we  have  already  seen,  that  changes 
had  been  effected  there.  Hinduism  had  first  elevated  and 
civilized  at  least  a  portion  of  the  race,  and  Mohamme- 
danism and  the  daring  seamanship  of  the  Malay  had 
united  these  islands  under  a  common  language  and  reli- 
gion. There  was,  however,  no  political  union.  The  Malay 
peninsula  was  divided.  Java  formed  a  central  Malay  power. 
Eastward  among  the  beautiful  Celebes  and  Moluccas,  the 
true  Spice  Islands,  were  a  multitude  of  small  native  rulers, 
rajas  or  datos,  who  surrounded  themselves  with  retain- 


60  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

ers,  kept  rude  courts,  and  gathered  wealthy  tributes  of 
cinnamon,  nutmegs,  and  cloves.  The  sultans  of  Ternate, 
Tidor,  and  Amboina  were  especially  powerful,  and  the 
islands  they  ruled  the  most  rich  and  productive. 

Between  all  these  islands  there  was  a  busy  commerce. 
The  Malay  is  an  intrepid  sailor,  and  an  eager  trader. 
Fleets  of  praus,  laden  with  goods,  passed  with  the  chang- 
ing monsoons  from  part  to  part,  risking  the  perils  of  piracy, 
which  have  always  troubled  this  archipelago.  Borneo, 
while  the  largest  of  all  these  islands,  was  the  least  devel- 
oped, and  down  to  the  present  day  has  been  hardly  ex- 
plored. The  Philippines  were  also  outside  of  most  of  this 
busy  intercourse  and  had  at  that  date  few  products  to 
offer  for  trade.  Their  main  connection  with  the  rest  of  the 
Malay  race  was  through  the  Mohammedan  Malays  of  Jolo 
and  Borneo.  The  fame  of  the  Spice  Islands  had  long  filled 
Europe,  but  the  existence  of  the  Philippines  was  unknown. 

Summary.  —  We  have  now  reviewed  the  condition  of 
Europe  and  of  farther  Asia  as  they  were  before  the  period 
of  modern  discovery  and  colonization  opened.  The  East 
had  reached  a  condition  of  quiet  stability.  Mohamme- 
danism, though  still  spreading,  did  not  promise  to  effect 
great  social  changes.  The  institutions  of  the  East  had 
become  fixed  in  custom  and  her  peoples  neither  made 
changes  nor  desired  them.  On  the  other  hand  western 
Europe  had  become  aroused  to  an  excess  of  ambition. 
New  ideas,  new  discoveries  and  inventions  were  moving 
the  nations  to  activity  and  change.  That  era  of  modern 
discovery  and  progress,  of  which  we  cannot  yet  perceive 
the  end,  had  begun. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
THE  GREAT  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISCOVERIES. 

An  Eastern  Passage  to  India.  —  The  Portuguese.  —  TVe 
have  seen  in  the  last  chapter  how  Venice  held  a  monopoly 
of  the  only  trading-route  with  the  Far  East.  Some  new 
way  of  reaching  India  must  be  sought,  that  would  permit 
the  traders  of  other  Christian  powers  to  reach  the  marts  of 
the  Orient  without  passing  through  Mohammedan  lands. 
This  surpassing  achievement  was  accomplished  by  the 
Portuguese.  So  low  at  the  present  day  has  the  power  of 
Portugal  fallen  that  few  realize  the  daring  and  courage 
once  displayed  by  her  seamen  and  soldiers  and  the  enor- 
mous colonial  empire  that  she  established. 

Portugal  freed  her  territory  of  the  Mohammedan  Moors 
nearly  a  century  earlier  than  Spain;  and  the  vigor  and 
intelligence  of  a  great  king,  John  I.,  brought  Portugal, 
about  the  year  1400,  to  an  important  place  among  the 
states  of  Europe.  This  king  captured  from  the  Moors  the 
city  of  Ceuta,  in  Morocco;  and  this  was  the  beginning  of 
modern  European  colonial  possessions,  and  almost  the 
first  land  outside  of  Europe  to  be  held  by  a  European 
power  since  the  times  of  the  Crusades.  King  John's 
youngest  son  was  Prince  Henry,  famous  in  history  under 
the  title  of  "the  Navigator."  This  young  prince,  with 
something  of  the  same  adventurous  spirit  that  filled  the 
Crusaders,  was  ardent  to  extend  the  power  of  his  father's 
kingdom  and  to  widen  the  sway  of  the  religion  which  he 
devotedly  professed.  The  power  of  the  Mohammedans  in 
the  Mediterranean  was  too  great  for  him  hopefully  to 
oppose  and  so  he  planned  the  conquest  of  the  west  coast 

61 


62  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

of  Africa,  and  its  conversion  to  Christianity.  With  these 
ends  in  view,  he  established  at  Point  Sagres,  on  the  south- 
western coast  of  Portugal,  a  naval  academy  and  obser- 
vatory. Here  he  brought  together  skilled  navigators, 
charts,  and  geographies,  and  all  scientific  knowledge  that 
would  assist  in  his  undertaking.1 

He  began  to  construct  ships  larger  and  better  than 
any  in  use.  To  us  they  would  doubtless  seem  very  clumsy 
and  small,  but  this  was  the  beginning  of  ocean  ship-build- 
ing. The  compass  and  the  astrolabe,  or  sextant,  the  little 
instrument  with  which,  by  calculating  the  height  of  the 
sun  above  the  horizon,  we  can  tell  distance  from  the  equa- 
tor, were  just  coming  into  use.  These,  as  well  as  every 
other  practicable  device  for  navigation  known  at  that 
time,  were  supplied  to  these  ships. 

Exploration  of  the  African  Coast.  —  Thus  equipped 
and  ably  manned,  the  little  fleets  began  the  exploration  of 
the  African  coast,  cautiously  feeling  their  way  southward 
and  ever  returning  with  reports  of  progress  made.  Year 
after  year  this  work  went  on.  In  1419  the  Madeira 
Islands  were  rediscovered  and  colonized  by  Portuguese 
settlers.  The  growing  of  sugarcane  was  begun,  and  vines 
were  brought  from  Burgundy  and  planted  there.  The 


1  See  the  noted  work  The  Life  of  Prince  Henry  of  Portugal,  surnamed 
the  Navigator,  and  its  Results,  by  Richard  Henry  Major,  London,  1868. 
Many  of  the  views  of  Mr.  Major  upon  the  importance  of  Prince  Henry's 
work  and  especially  its  early  aims,  have  been  contradicted  in  more  re- 
cent writings.  The  importance  of  the  Sagres  Observatory  is  belittled. 
Doubts  are  expressed  as  to  the  farsightedness  of  Prince  Henry's  plans, 
and  the  best  opinion  of  to-day  holds  that  he  did  not  hope  to  discover 
a  new  route  to  India  by  way  of  Africa,  but  sought  simply  the  conquest 
of  the  "  Guinea,"  which  was  known  to  the  Europeans  through  the  Arab 
Geographers,  who  called  it  "  Bilad  Ghana "  or  "  Land  of  Wealth." 
The  students,  if  possible,  should  read  the  essay  of  Mr.  E.  J.  Payne, 
The  Age  of  Discovery,  in  the  Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol  I. 


THE   GREAT   GEOGRAPHICAL  DISCOVERIES.        63 

wine  of  the  Madeiras  has  been  famous  to  this  day.  Then 
were  rediscovered  the  Canaries  and  in  1444  the  Azores. 
The  southward  exploration  of  the  coast  of  the  mainland 
steadily  continued  until  in  1445  the  Portuguese  reached 
the  mouth  of  the  Senegal  River.  Up  to  this  point  the  Afri- 
can shore  had  not  yielded  much  of  interest  to  the  Portu- 
guese explorer  or  trader.  Below  Morocco  the  great  Sahara 
Desert  reaches  to  the  sea  and  renders  barren  the  coast 
for  hundreds  of  miles. 

South  of  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal  and  comprising 
the  whole  Guinea  coast,  Africa  is  tropical,  well  watered, 
and  populous.  This  is  the  home  of  the  true  African 
Negro.  Here,  for  almost  the  first  time,  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Middle  Ages,  Christian  Europe  came  in 
contact  with  a  race  of  ruder  culture  and  different  color 
than  its  own.  This  coast  was  found  to  be  worth  exploit- 
ing; for  it  yielded,  besides  various  desirable  resinous  gums, 
three  articles  which  have  distinguished  the  exploitation  of 
Africa,  namely,  gold,  ivory,  and  slaves. 

Beginning  of  Negro  Slavery  in  Europe.  —  At  this  point 
begins  the  horrible  and  revolting  story  of  European  Negro 
slavery.  The  ancient  world  had  practiced  this  owner- 
ship of  human  chattels,  and  the  Roman  Empire  had  de- 
clined under  a  burden  of  half  the  population  sunk  in 
bondage.  To  the  enormous  detriment  and  suffering  of 
mankind,  Mohammed  had  tolerated  the  institution,  and 
slavery-  is  permitted  by  the  Koran.  But  it  is  the  glory  of 
the  medieval  church  that  it  abolished  human  slavery 
from  Christian  Europe.  However  dreary  and  unjust  feu- 
dalism may  have  been,  it  knew  nothing  of  that  institution 
which  degrades  men  and  women  to  the  level  of  cattle  and 
remorselessly  sells  the  husband  from  his  family,  the  mother 
from  her  child. 


64  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Slaves  in  Portugal.  —  The  arrival  of  the  Portuguese 
upon  the  coast  of  Guinea  now  revived  not  the  bondage  of 
one  white  man  to  another,  but  that  of  the  black  to  the 
white.  The  first  slaves  carried  to  Portugal  were  regarded 
simply  as  objects  of  peculiar  interest,  captives  to  repre- 
sent to  the  court  the  population  of  those  shores  which  had 
been  added  to  the  Portuguese  dominion.  But  southern 
Portugal,  from  which  the  Moors  had  been  expelled,  had 
suffered  from  a  lack  of  laborers,  and  it  was  found  profit- 
able to  introduce  Negroes  to  work  these  fields. 

Arguments  to  Justify  Slavery.  —  So  arose  the  insti- 
tution of  Negro  slavery,  which  a  century  later  upon  the 
shores  of  the  New  World  was  to  develop  into  so  tremen- 
dous and  terrible  a  thing.  Curiously  enough,  religion  was 
evoked  to  justify  this  enslavement  of  the  Africans.  The 
Church  taught  that  these  people,  being  heathen,  were 
fortunate  to  be  captured  by  Christians,  that  they  might 
thereby  be  brought  to  baptism  and  conversion;  for  it  is 
better  for  the  body  to  perish  than  for  the  soul  to  be  cast 
into  hell.  At  a  later  age,  when  the  falsity  of  this  teach- 
ing had  been  realized,  men  still  sought  to  justify  the 
institution  by  arguing  that  the  Almighty  had  created 
the  African  of  a  lower  state  especially  that  he  might  serve 
the  superior  race. 

The  coast  of  Guinea  continued  to  be  the  resort  of  slavers 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  and  such  scenes 
of  cruelty,  wickedness,  and  debauchery  have  occurred  along 
its  shores  as  can  scarcely  be  paralleled  in  brutality  in  the 
history  of  any  people. 

The  Portuguese  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  colonized 
the  coast  in  the  sense  of  raising  up  there  a  Portuguese 
population.  As  he  approached  the  equator  the  white  man 
found  that,  in  spite  of  his  superior  strength,  he  could  not 


THE  GREAT  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISCOVERIES.        65 

permanently  people  the  tropics.  Diseases  new  to  his 
experience  attacked  him.  His  energy  declined.  If  he 
brought  his  family  with  him,  his  children  were  few  or 
feeble  and  shortly  his  race  had  died  out. 

The  settlements  of  the  Portuguese  were  largely  for  the 
purposes  of  trade.  At  Sierra  Leone,  Kamerun,  or  Loango, 
they  built  forts  and  established  garrisons,  mounting  pieces 
of  artillery  that  gave  them  advantage  over  the  attacks  of 
the  natives,  and  erecting  warehouses  and  the  loathsome 
"barracoon,"  where  the  slaves  were  confined  to  await 
shipment.  Such  decadent  little  settlements  still  linger 
along  the  African  coast,  although  the  ocean  slave-trade 
happily  has  ended. 

The  Succ  ssful  Voyage  of  Vasco  da  Gama.  —  Through- 
out the  century  Prince  Henry's  policy  of  exploration  was 
continued.  Slowly  the  middle  coast  of  Africa  became 
known.  At  last  in  1487,  Bartholomew  Diaz  rounded  the 
extremity  of  the  continent.  He.  named  it  the  Cape  of 
Storms;  but  the  Portuguese  king,  with  more  prophetic 
vision,  renamed  it  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  was  ten 
years,  however,  before  the  Portuguese  could  send  another 
expedition.  Then  Vasco  da  Gama  rounded  the  cape 
again,  followed  up  the  eastern  coast  until  the  Arab  trad- 
ing-stations were  reached.  Then  he  struck  across  the  sea, 
landed  at  the  Malabar  coast  of  India,  and  in  1498  arrived 
at  Calicut.  The  end  droamed  of  by  all  of  Europe  had 
been  achieved.  A  sea-route  to  the  Far  East  had  been 
discovered. 

Results  of  Da  Gama's  Voyage. — The  importance  of 
this  performance  was  instantly  recognized  in  Europe. 
Venice  was  ruined.  "It  was  a  terrible  day,"  said  a  con- 
temporary writer,  "when  the  word  reached  Venice.  Bells 
were  rung,  men  wept  in  the  streets,  and  even  the  bravest 


66  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

were  silent."  The  Arabs  and  the  native  rulers  made  a 
desperate  effort  to  expel  the  Portuguese  from  the  Indian 
Ocean,  but  their  opponents  were  too  powerful.  In  the 
course  of  twenty  years  Portugal  had  founded  an  empire 
that  had  its  forts  and  trading-marts  from  the  coast  of 
Arabia  to  Malaysia.  Zanzibar,  Aden,  Oman,  Goa,  Calicut, 
.and  Madras  were  all  Portuguese  stations,  fortified  and  se- 
cured. In  the  Malay  peninsula  was  captured  the  city  of 
Malacca,  which  retained  its  commercial  importance  until 
the  last  century,  when  it  dwindled  before  the  competition 
of  Singapore. 

The  work  of  building  up  this  great  domain  was  largely 
that  of  one  man,  the  intrepid  Albuquerque.  Think  what 
his  task  was!  He  was  thousands  of  miles  from  home  and 
supplies,  he  had  only  such  forces  and  munitions  as  he 
could  bring  with  him  in  his  little  ships,  and  opposed  to 
him  were  millions  of  inhabitants  and  a  multitude  of  Mo- 
hammedan princes.  Yet  this  great  captain  built  up  an 
Indian  empire.  Portugal  at  one  bound  became  the  great- 
est trading  and  colonizing  power  in  the  world.  Her  sources 
of  wealth  appeared  fabulous,  and,  like  Venice,  she  made 
every  effort  to  secure  her  monopoly.  The  fleets  of  other 
nations  were  warned  that  they  could  not  make  use  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  route,  on  penalty  of  being  captured 
or  destroyed. 

Reaching  India  by  Sailing  West.  —  The  Earth  as  a 
Sphere,  f—  Meanwhile,  just  as  Portugal  was  carrying  to 
completion  her  project  of  reaching  India  by  sailing  east, 
Europe  was  electrified  by  the  supposed  successful  attempt 
of  reaching  India  by  sailing  directly  west,  across  the  At- 
lantic. This  was  the  plan  daringly  attempted  in  1492  by 
Christopher  Columbus.  Columbus  was  an  Italian  sailor 
and  cosm'ographer  of  Genoa.  The  idea  of  sailing  west  to 


THE    GREAT  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISCOVERIES.         67 

India  did  not  originate  with  him,  but  his  is  the  immortal 
glory  of  having  persistently  sought  the  means  and  put  the 
idea  into  execution. 

The  Portuguese  discoveries  along  the  African  coast 
gradually  revealed  the  extension  of  this  continent  and 
the  presence  of  people  beyond  the  equator,  and  the  pos- 
sibility of  passing  safely  through  the  tropics.  This  knowl- 
edge was  a  great  stimulus  to  the  peoples  of  Europe. 
The  geographical  theory  of  the  Greeks,  that  the  world  is 
round,  was  revived.  The  geographers,  however,  in  mak- 
ing their  calculations  of  the  earth's  circumference,  had 
fallen  into  an  error  of  some  thousands  of  miles;  that  is, 
instead  of  finding  that  it  is  fully  twelve  thousand  miles 
from  Europe  around  to  the  East  Indies,  they  had  sup- 
posed it  about  four  thousand,  or  even  less.  Marco  Polo 
too  had  exaggerated  the  distance  he  had  traveled  and 
from  his  accounts  men  had  been  led  to  believe  that  China, 
Japan,  and  the  Spice  Islands  lay  much  further  to  the  east 
than  they  actually  do. 

By  sailing  west  across  one  wide,  ocean,  with  no  interven- 
ing lands,  it  was  thought  that  one  could  arrive  at  the 
island-world  off  the  continent  of  Asia.  This  was  the  theory 
that  was  revived  in  Italy  and  which  clung  in  men's  minds 
for  years  and  years,  even  after  America  was  discovered. 

An  Italian,  named  Toscanelli,  drew  a  map  showing 
how  this  voyage  could  be  made,  and  sent  Columbus  a 
copy.  By  sailing  first  to  the  Azores,  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  journey  would  be  passed,  with  a  convenient 
resting-stage.  Then  about  thirty-five  days'  favorable  sail- 
ing would  bring  one  to  the  islands  of  "Cipango,"  or 
Japan,  which  Marco  Polo  had  said  lay  off  the  continent 
of  Asia.  From  here  the  passage  could  readily  be  pur- 
sued to  Cathay  and  India. 


68  THE  PHILIPPINES, 

The  Voyage  of  Christopher  Columbus .  —  The  roman- 
tic and  inspiring  story  of  Columbus  is  told  in  many  books, 
—  his  poverty)  his  genius,  his  long  and  discouraging  pur- 
suit of  the  means  to  carry  out  his  plan.  He  first  applied 
to  Portugal;  but,  as  we  have  seen,  this  country  had  been 
pursuing  another  plan  steadily  for  a  century,  and,  now 
that  success  appeared  almost  achieved,  naturally  the 
Portuguese  king  would  not  turn  aside  to  favor  Columbus's 
plan. 

For  years  Columbus  labored  to  interest  the  Spanish 
court.  A  great  event  had  happened  in  Spanish  history. 
Ferdinand,  king  of  Aragon,  had  wedded  Isabella  of  Castile, 
and  this  marriage  united  these  two  kingdoms  into  the 
modern  country  of  Spain.  Soon  the  smaller  states  except 
Portugal  were  added,  and  the  war  for  the  expulsion  of  the 
Moors  was  prosecuted  with  new  vigor.  In  1492,  Grenada, 
the  last  splendid  stronghold  of  the  Mohammedans  in  the 
peninsula,  surrendered,  and  in  the  same  year  Isabella  fur- 
nished Columbus  with  the  ships  for  his  voyage  of .  dis- 
covery. 

Columbus  sailed  from  Palos,  August  3, 1492,  reached  the 
Canaries  August  24,  and  sailed  westward  on  September 
6.  Day  after  day,  pushed  by  the  strong  winds,  called 
the  "trades/'  they  went  forward.  Many  doubts  and  fears 
beset  the  crews,  but  Columbus  was  stout-hearted.  At  the 
end  of  thirty-four  days  from  the  Canaries,  on  October  12, 
they  sighted  land.  It  was  one  of  the  groups  of  beautiful 
islands  lying  between  the  two  continents  of  America.  But 
Columbus  thought  that  he  had  reached  the  East  Indies  that 
really  lay  many  thousands  of  miles  farther  west.  Colum- 
bus sailed  among  the  islands  of  the  archipelago,  discov- 
ered Cuba  and  Hispaniola  (Haiti),  and  then  returned  to 
convulse  Europe  with  excitement  over  the  new-found  way 


70  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

to  the  East.  He  had  not  found  the  rich  Spice  Islands,  the 
peninsula  of  India,  Cathay  or  Japan,  but  every  one  be- 
lieved that  these  must  be  close  to  the  islands  on  which 
Columbus  had  landed. 

The  tall,  straight-haired,  copper-colored  natives,  whom 
Columbus  met  on  the  islands,  he  naturally  called  "In- 
dians";' and  this  name  they  still  bear.  Afterwards  the 
islands  were  called  the  "West  Indies."  Columbus  made 
three  more  voyages  for  Spain.  On  the  fourth,  in  1498, 
he  touched  on  the  coast  of  South  America.  Here  he  dis- 
covered the  great  Orinoco  River.  Because  of  its  large 
size,  he  must  have  realized  that  a  large  body  of  land 
opposed  the  passage  to  the  Orient..  He  died  in  1506,  dis- 
appointed at  his  failure  to  find  India,  but  never  knowing 
what  he  had  found,  nor  that  the  history  of  a  new  hemi- 
sphere had  begun  with  him. 

The  Voyage  of  the  Cabots.  —  In  the  same  year  that 
Columbus  discovered  the  Orinoco,  Sebastian  Cabot,  of 
Italian  parentage,  like  Columbus,  secured  ships  from  the 
king  of  England,  hoping  to  reach  China  and  Japan  by 
sailing  west  on  a  northern  route.  What  he  did  discover 
was  a  rugged  and  uninviting  coast,  with  stormy  head- 
lands, cold  climate,  and  gloomy  forests  of  pine  reaching 
down  to  the  sandy  shores.  For  nine  hundred  miles  he 
sailed  southward,  but  everywhere  this  unprofitable  coast 
closed  the  passage  to  China.  It  was  the  coast  of  Labra- 
dor and  the  United  States.  Yet  for  years  and  years  it 
was  not  known  that  a  continent  three  thousand  miles 
wide  and  the  greatest  of  all  oceans  lay  between  Cathay 
and  the  shore  visited  by  Cabot's  ships.  This  land  was 
thought  to  be  a  long  peninsula,  an  island,  or  series  of 
islands,  belonging  to  Asia.  No  one  supposed  or  could  sup- 
pose that  there  was  a  continent  here. 


THE   GREAT  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISCOVERIES.         71 

Naming  the  New  World.  —  But  in  a  few  years  Europe 
did  realize  that  a  new  continent  had  been  discovered  in 
South  America.  If  you  will  look  at  your  maps,  you  will 
see  that  South  America  lies  far  to  the  eastward  of  North 
America  and  in  Brazil  approaches  very  close  to  Africa. 
This  Brazilian  coast  was  visited  by  a  Portuguese  fleet  on 
the  African  route  in  1500,  and  two  years  later  another 
fleet  traversed  the  coast  from  the  Orinoco  to  the  harbor 
of  Rio  Janeiro.  Their  voyage  was  a  veritable  revelation. 
They  entered  the  mighty  current  of  the  Amazon,  the  great- 
est river  of  the  earth.  They  saw  the  wondrous  tropical 
forests,  full  of  monkeys,  great  snakes,  and  stranger  ani- 
mals. They  dealt  and  fought  with  the  wild  and  ferocious 
inhabitants,  whose  ways  startled  and  appalled  the  Euro- 
pean. All  that  they  saw  filled  them  with  greatest  wonder. 
This  evidently  was  not  Asia,  nor  was  it  the  Indies.  Here, 
in  fact,  was  a  new  continent,  a  veritable  "  Mundus  Novus." 

The  pilot  of  this  expedition  was  an  Italian,  named 
Amerigo  Vespucci.  On  the  return  this  man  wrote  a  very 
interesting  letter  or  little  pamphlet,  describing  this  new 
world,  which  was  widely  read,  and  brought  the  writer 
fame.  A  few  years  later  a  German  cosmographer,  in  pre- 
paring a  new  edition  of  Ptolemy's  geography,  proposed  to 
give  to  this  new  continent  the  name  of  the  man  who  had 
made  known  its  wonders  in  Europe.  So  it  was  called 
"America."  Long  after,  when  the  northern  shores  were 
also  proved  to  be  those  of  a  continent/this  great  land  was 
named  "North  America."  No  injustice  was  intended  to 
Columbus  when  America  was  so  named.  It  was  not  then 
supposed  that  Columbus  had  discovered  a  continent. 
The  people  then  believed  that  Columbus  had  found  a  new 
route  to  India  and  had  discovered  some  new  islands  that 
lay  off  the  coast  of  Asia. 


72  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Spain  Takes  Possession  of  the  New  Lands.  —  Of  these 
newly  found  islands  and  whatever  wealth  they  might  be 
found  to  contain,  Spain  claimed  the  possession  by  right 
of  discovery.  And  of  the  European  nations,  it  was  Spain 
which  first  began  the  exploration  and  colonization  of 
America.  Spain  was  now  free  from  her  long  Mohamme- 
dan wars,  and  the  nation  was  being  united  under  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella.  The  Spaniards  were  brave,  adventurous, 
and  too  proud  to  engage  in  commerce  or  agriculture, 
but  ready  enough  to  risk  life  and  treasure  in  quest  of  riches 
abroad.  The  Spaniards  were  devotedly  religious,  and  the 
Church  encouraged  conquest,  that  missionary  work  might 
be  extended.  So  Spain  began  her  career  that  was  soon 
to  make  her  the  foremost  power  of  Europe  and  one  of  the 
greatest  colonial  empires  the  world  has  seen.  It  is  amaz- 
ing what  the  Spaniards  accomplished  in  the  fifty  years 
following  Columbus's  first  voyage. 

Hispaniola  was  made  the  center  from  which  the  Span- 
iards extended  their  explorations  to  the  continents  of  both 
North  and  South  America.  On  these  islands  of  the  West 
Indies  they  found  a  great  tribe  of  Indians,  —  the  Caribs. 
They  were  fierce  and  cruel.  The  Spaniards  waged  a  war-' 
fare  of  extermination  against  them,  killing  many,  and  en- 
slaving others  for  work  in  the  mines.  The  Indian  proved 
unable  to  exist  as  a  slave.  And  his  sufferings  drew  the' 
attention  of  a  Spanish  priest,  Las  Casas,  who  by  vigorous 
efforts  at  the  court  succeeded  in  having  Indian  slavery 
abolished  and  African  slavery  introduced  to  take  its  place. 
This  remedy  was  in  the  end  worse  than  the  disease,  for  it 
gave  an  immense  impetus  to  the  African  slave-trade  and 
peopled  America  with  a  race  of  Africans  in  bondage. 

Other  Spanish  Explorations  and  Discoveries.  —  Mean- 
while, the  Spanish  soldier,  with  incredible  energy,  courage. 


THE   GREAT   GEOGRAPHICAL  DISCOVERIES.        73 

and  daring,  pushed  his  conquests.  In  1513,  Florida  was 
discovered,  and  in  the  same  year  Balboa  crossed  the  nar- 
row isthmus  of  Panama  and  saw  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Con- 
trary to  what  is  often  supposed,  he  did  not  dream  of  its 
vast  extent,  but  supposed  it  to  be  a  narrow  body  of  water 
lying  between  Panama  and  the  Asian  islands.  He  named 
it  the  "South  Sea,"  a  name  that  survived  after  its  true 
character  was  revealed  by  Magellan.  Then  followed  the 
two  most  romantic  and  surprising  conquests  of  colonial 
history,  —  that  of  Mexico  by  Cortes  in  1521,  and  of  Peru 
by  Pizarro  in  1533-34.  These  great  countries  were  in- 
habited by  Indians,  the  most  advanced  and  cultured  on 
the  American  continents.  And  here  the  Spaniards  found 
enormous  treasures  of  gold  and  silver.  Then,  the  dis- 
covery of  the  mines  of  Potosi  opened  the  greatest  source 
of  the  precious  metal  that  Europe  had  ever  known.  Span- 
iards flocked  to  the  New  World,  and  in  New  Spain,  as 
Mexico  was  called,  was  established  a  great  vice-royalty. 
Year  after  year  enormous  wealth  was  poured  into  Spain 
from  these  American  possessions. 

Emperor  Charles  V.  —  Meanwhile  great  political  power 
had  been  added  to  Spain  in  Europe.  In  1520  the  throne 
of  Spain  fell  to  a  young  man,  Charles,  the  grandson  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  His  mother  was  Juana,  the 
Spanish  princess,  and  his  father  was  Philip  the  Hand- 
some, of  Burgundy.  Philip  the  Handsome  was  the  son  of 
Maximilian,  the  Archduke  of  Austria.  Now  it  curiously 
happened  that  the  thrones  of  each  of  these  three  coun- 
tries was  left  without  other  heirs  than  Charles,  and  in 
1520  he  was  King  of  Spain,  Archduke  of  Austria,  and 
Duke  of  Burgundy  and  the  Low  Countries,  including  the 
rich  commercial  cities  of  Holland  and  Belgium.  In  addi- 
tion to  all  this,  the  German  princes  elected  him  German 


74  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

emperor,  and  although  he  was  King  Charles  the  First  of 
Spain,  he  is  better  known  in  history  as  Emperor  Charles 
the  Fifth.1 

He  was  then  an  untried  boy  of  twenty  years,  and  no 
one  expected  to  find  in  him  a  man  of  resolute  energy,  cold 
persistence,  and  great  executive  ability.  But  so  it  proved, 
and  this  was  the  man  that  made  of  Spain  the  greatest 
power  of  the  time.  He  was  in  constant  warfare.  He 
fought  four  wars  with  King  Francis  I.  of  France,  five 
wars  with  the  Turks,  both  in  the  Danube  valley  and  in 
Africa,  and  an  unending  succession  of  contests  with  the 
Protestant  princes  of  Germany.  For  Charles  saw,  besides 
many  other  important  changes,  the  rise  of  Protestantism, 
and  the  revolt  of  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  England 
from  Catholicism.  The  first  event  in  his  emperorship 
was  the  assembling  of  the  famous  German  Diet  at  Worms, 
where  was  tried  and  condemned  the  real  founder  of  the 
Protestant  religion,  Martin  Luther. 

The  Voyage  of  Ferdinand  Magellan.  —  In  the  mean  time 
a  way  had  at  last  been  found  to  reach  the  Orient  from 
Europe  by  sailing  west.  This  discovery,  the  greatest  voy- 
age ever  made  by  man,  was  accomplished,  in  1521,  by  the 
fleet  of  Ferdinand  Magellan.  Magellan  was  a  Portuguese, 
who  had  been  in  the  East  with  Albuquerque.  He  had 
fought  with  the  Malays  in  Malacca,  and  had  helped  to 
establish  the  Portuguese  power  in  India. 

On  his  return  to  Portugal,  the  injustice  of  the  court 
drove  him  from  his  native  country,  and  he  entered  the 
service  of  Spain.  Charles  the  Fifth  commissioned  him 
to  attempt  a  voyage  of  discovery  down  the  coast  of  South 


1  The  classical  work  on  this  famous  ruler  is  Robertson's  Life  of 
Charles  the  Fifth,  but  the  student  should  consult  if  possible  more 
recent  works. 


THE   GREAT  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISCOVERIES.         75 

America,  with  the  hope  of  finding  a  passage  to  the  East. 
This  was  Magellan's  great  hope  and  faith,  —  that  south 
of  the  new  continent  of  America  must  lie  a  passage  west- 
ward, by  which  ships  could  sail  to  China.  As  long  as 
Portugal  was  able  to  keep  closed  the  African  route  to  all 
other  ships  than  her  own,  the  discovery  of  some  other 
way  was  imperative. 

On  the  20th  of  September,  1519,  Magellan's  fleet  of  five 
ships  sailed  from  Sanlucar,  the  seaport  of  the  city  of  Seville, 
where  were  equipped  the  Spanish  colonial  fleets.  On 
November  29th  they  reached  the  coast  of  Brazil  and  then 
coasted  southward.  They  traded  with  the  natives,  and 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  stayed  some  days 
to  fish. 

The  weather  grew  rapidly  colder  and  more  stormy  as 
they  went  farther  south,  and  Magellan  decided  to  stop  and 
winter  in  the  Bay  of  San  Julian.  Here  the  cold  of  the 
winter,  the  storms,  and  the  lack  of  food  caused  a  con- 
spiracy among  his  captains  to  mutiny  and  return  to  Spain. 
Magellan  acted  with  swift  and  terrible  energy.  He  cap- 
tured one  of  the  mutinous  vessels,  and  the  chief  conspirator 
was  stabbed  by  the  constable,  Espinosa.  The  rest  sur- 
rendered; one  leader  was  executed  and  two  others  were 
"  marooned,"  or  left  to  their  fate  on  the  shore. 

The  Straits  of  Magellan.  —  The  fleet  sailed  south- 
ward again  in  August  but  it  was  not  until  November  1, 
1520,  that  Magellan  entered  the  long  and  tortuous  straits 
that  bear  his  name  and  which  connect  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans.  South  of  them  were  great  bleak 
islands,  cold  and  desolate.  They  were  inhabited  by  In- 
dians, who  are  probably  the  lowest  and  most  wretched 
savages  on  the  earth.  They  live  on  fish  and  mussels.  As 
they  go  at  all  times  naked,  they  carry  with  them  in  their 


76  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

boats  brands  and  coals  of  fire.  Seeing  the  numerous  lights 
on  the  shore,  Magellan  named  these  islands  Tierra  del 
Fuego  (the  Land  of  Fire).  For  thirty  days  the  ships 
struggled  with  the  currents  and  shifting  winds  that  pre- 
vail in  this  channel ,,  during  which  time  one  ship  deserted 
and  returned  to  Spain;  another  had  been  lost,  and  only 
three  passed  out  onto  the  boundless  waters  of  the  Pacific. 

Westward  on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  — But  we  must  not 
make  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  Magellan  and  his  fol- 
lowers imagined  that  a  great  ocean  confronted  them. 
They  expected  that  simply  sailing  northward  to  the  lati- 
tude of  the  Spice  Islands  would  bring  them  to  these  de- 
sired places.  This  they  did,  and  then  turned  westward, 
expecting  each  day  to  find  the  Indies;  but  no  land  ap- 
peared. The  days  lengthened  into  weeks,  the  weeks  into 
months,  and  still  they  went  forward,  carried  by  the  trade 
winds  over  a  sea  so  smooth  and  free  from  tempests  that 
Magellan  named  it  the  "Pacific." 

But  they  suffered  horribly  from  lack  of  food,  even 
eating  in  their  starvation  the  leather  slings  on  the  masts. 
It  was  a  terrible  trial  of  their  courage.  Twenty  of  their 
number  died.  The  South  Pacific  is  studded  with  islands, 
but  curiously  their  route  lay  just  too  far  north  to  behold 
them.  From  November  28,  when  they  emerged  from  the 
Straits  of  Magellan,  until  March  7,  when  they  reached 
the  Ladrones,  they  encountered  only  two  islands,  and  these 
were  small  uninhabited  rocks,  without  water  or  food,  which 
in  their  bitter  disappointment  they  named  the  Unfortu- 
nate Islands. 

The  Ladrone  Islands.  —  Their  relief  must  have  been 
inexpressible  when,  on  coming  up  to  land  on  March  the 
7th,  they  found  inhabitants  and  food,  yams,  cocoanuts, 
and  rice.  At  these  islands  the  Spaniards  first  saw  the 


78  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

prau,  with  its  light  outrigger,  and  pointed  sail.  So 
numerous  were  these  craft  that  they  named  the  group 
Las  Islas  de  las  Velas  (the  Islands  of  Sails) ;  but  the  loss' 
of  a  ship's  boat  and  other  annoying  thefts  led  the  sailors 
to  designate  the  islands  Los  Ladrones  (the  Thieves),  a 
name  which  they  still  retain. 

The  Philippine  Islands. —  Samar. — Leaving  the  La- 
drones  Magellan  sailed  on  westward  looking  for  the  Moluc- 
cas, and  the  first  land  that  he  sighted  was  the  eastern 
coast  of  Samar.  Pigafetta  says:  "Saturday,  the  16th  of 
March,  we  sighted  an  island  which  has  very  lofty  moun- 
tains. Soon  after  we  learned  that  it  was  Zamal,  distant 
three  hundred  leagues  from  the  islands  of  the  Ladrones."  * 

Homonhon. —  On  the  following  day  the  sea-worn  ex- 
pedition landed  on  a  little  uninhabited  island  south  of 
Samar  which  Pigafetta  called  Humunu,  and  which  is 
still  known  as  Homonhon  or  Jomonjol. 

It  was  while  staying  at  this  little  island  that  the  Span- 
iards first  saw  the  natives  of  the  Philippines.  A  prau 
which  contained  nine  men  approached  their  ship.  They 
saw  other  boats  fishing  near  and  learned  that  all  of  these 
people  came  from  the  island  of  Suluan,  which  lies  off  to 
the  eastward  from  Jomonjol  about  twenty  kilometres. 
In  their  life  and  appearance  these  fishing  people  were  much 
like  the  present  Samal  laut  of  southern  Mindanao  and 
the  Sulu  Archipelago. 

Limasaua.  —  Pigafetta  says  that  they  stayed  on  the 
island  of  Jomonjol  eight  days  but  had  great  difficulty  in 
securing  food.  The  natives  brought  them  a  few  cocoa- 
nuts  and  oranges,  palm  wine,  and  a  chicken  or  two,  but 
this  was  all  that  could  be  spared,  so,  on  the  25th,  the 

1  Primer  Viaje  alrededor  del  Mundo,  Spanish  translation  by  Amoretti, 
Madrid,  1899,  page  27. 


THE   GREAT  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISCOVERIES.         79 

Spaniards  sailed  again,  and  near  the  south  end  of  Leyte 
landed  on  the  little  island  of  Limasaua.  Here  there  was 
a  village,  where  they  met  two  chieftains,  whom  Pigafetta 
calls  "  kings,"  and  whose  names  were  Raja  Calambu 
and  Raja  Ciagu.  These  two  chieftains  were  visiting 
Limasaua  and  had  their  residences  one  at  Butuan  and  one 
at  Cagayan  on  the  island  of  Mindanao.  Some  histories 
have  stated  that  the  Spaniards  accompanied  one  of  these 
chieftains  to  Butuan,  but  this  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  the  case. 

On  the  island  of  Limasaua  -the  natives  had  dogs,  cats, 
hogs,  goats,  and  fowls.  They  were  cultivating  rice,  maize, 
breadfruit,  and  had  also  cocoanuts,  oranges,  bananas, 
citron,  and  ginger.  Pigafetta  tells  how  he  visited  one  of 
the  chieftains  at  his  home  on  the  shore.  The  house  was 
built  as  Filipino  houses  are  today,  raised  on  posts  and 
thatched.  Pigafetta  thought  it  looked  "  like  a  haystack." 

It  had  been  the  day  of  Saint  Lazarus  when  the  Spaniards 
first  reached  these  islands,  so  that  Magellan  gave  to  the 
group  the  name  of  the  Archipelago  of  Saint  Lazarus,  the 
name  under  which  the  Philippines  were  frequently  described 
in  the  early  writings,  although  another  title,  Islas  del 
Poniente  or  Islands  of  the  West,  was  more  common  up 
to  the  time  when  the  title  Filipinas  became  fixed. 

Cebu.  —  Magellan's  people  were  now  getting  desper- 
ately in  need  of  food,  and  the  population  on  Limasaua 
had  very  inadequate  supplies;  consequently  the  natives 
directed  him  to  the  island  of  Cebu,  and  provided  him 
with  guides. 

Leaving  Limasaua  the  fleet  sailed  for  Cebu,  passing 
several  large  islands,  among  them  Bohol,  and  reaching 
Cebu  harbor  on  Sunday,  the  7th  of  April.  A  junk  from 
Siam  was  anchored  at  Cebu  when  Magellan's  ships  arrived 


80  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

there;  and  this,  together  with  the  knowledge  that  the 
Filipinos  showed  of  the  surrounding  countries,  including 
China  on  the  one  side  and  the  Moluccas  on  the  other,  is 
additional  evidence  of  the  extensive  trade  relations  at 
the  time  of  the  discovery. 

Cebu  seems  to  have  been  a  large  town  and  it  is  reported 
that  more  than  two  thousand  warriors  with  their  lances 
appeared  to  resist  the  landing  of  the  Spaniards,  but  assur- 
ances of  friendliness  finally  won  the  Filipinos,  and  Magellan 
formed  a  compact  with  the  dato  of  Cebu,  whose  name  was 
Humabon. 

The  Blood  Compact.  —  The  dato  invited  Magellan  to 
seal  this  compact  in  accordance  with  a  curious  custom  of 
the  Filipinos.  Each  chief  wounded  himself  in  the  breast 
and  from  the  wound  each  sucked  and  drank  the  other's 
blood.  It  is  not  certain  whether  Magellan  participated  in 
this  "blood  compact,"  as  it  has  been  called;  but  later  it 
was  observed  many  times  in  the  Spanish  settlement  of  the 
islands,  especially  by  Legazpi. 

The  natives  were  much  struck  by  the  service  of  the 
mass,  which  the  Spaniards  celebrated  on  their  landing, 
and  after  some  encouragement  desired  to  be  admitted  to 
the  Spaniards'  religion.  More  than  eight  hundred  were 
baptized,  including  Humabon.  The  Spaniards  established 
a  kind  of  "  factory  "  or  trading-post  on  Cebu,  and  for 
some  time  a  profitable  trade  was  engaged  in.  The 
Filipinos  well  understood  trading,  had  scales,  weights, 
and  measures,  and  were  fair  dealers. 

Death  of  Magellan. —  And  now  follows  the  great  trag- 
edy of  the  expedition.  The  dato  of  Cebu,  or  the  "  Chris- 
tian king,"  as  Pigafetta  called  their  new  ally,  was  at  war 
with  the  islanders  of  Mactan.  Magellan,  eager  to  assist 
one  who  had  adopted  the  Christian  faith,  landed  on  Mac- 


THE  GREAT  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISCOVERIES. 


81 


tan  with  fifty  men  and  in  the  battle  that  ensued  was  killed 
by  a  wound  in  the  arm  and  spear-thrusts  through  the 
breast.  So  died  the  one  who  was  unquestionably  the 
greatest  explorer  and  most  daring  adventurer  of  all  time. 
"Thus,"  says  Pigafetta,  "perished  our  guide,  our  light, 
and  our  support."  It  was  the  crowning  disaster  of  the 
expedition. 

The  Fleet  Visits  Other  Islands.  —  After  Magellan's 
death,   the  natives  of  Cebu  rose  and  killed  the  newly 


Magellan  Monument,  Manila. 

elected  leader,  Serrano,  and  the  fleet  in  fear  lifted  its  an- 
chors and  sailed  southward  from  the  Bisayas.  They  had 
lost  thirty-five  men  and  their  numbers  were  reduced  to 
one  hundred  and  fifteen.  One  of  the  ships  was  burned, 
there  being  too  few  men  surviving  to  handle  three  vessels. 
After  touching  at  Western  Mindanao,  they  sailed  west- 
ward, and  saw  the  small  group  of  Cagayan  Sulu.  The 


82  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

few  inhabitants  they  learned  were  Moros,  exiled  from 
Borneo.  They  landed  on  an  island  called  Puluan  (hence 
Palawan),  where  they  observed  the  sport  of  cock-fighting, 
indulged  in  by  the  natives. 

From  here,  still  searching  for  the  Moluccas,  they  were 
guided  to  Borneo,  the  present  city  of  Brunei.  Here  was 
the  powerful  Mohammedan  colony,  whose  adventurers 
were  already  in  communication  with  Luzon  and  had  es- 
tablished a  colony  on  the  site  of  Manila.  The  city  was 
divided  into  two  sections,  that  of  the  Mohammedan  Ma- 
lays, the  conquerors,  and  that  of  the  Dyaks,  the  primi- 
tive population  of  the  island.  Pigafetta  exclaims  over  the 
riches  and  power  of  this  Mohammedan  city.  It  contained 
twenty-five  thousand  families,  the  houses  built  for  most 
part  on  piles  over  the  water.  The  king's  house  was  of 
stone,  and  beside  it  was  a  great  brick  fort,  with  over  sixty 
brass  and  iron  cannon.  Here  the  Spaniards  saw  elephants 
and  camels,  and  there  was  a  rich  trade  in  ginger,  camphor, 
gums,  and  in  pearls  from  Sulu. 

Hostilities  cut  short  their  stay  here  and  they  sailed 
eastward  along  the  north  coast  of  Borneo  through  the 
Sulu  Archipelago,  where  their  cupidity  was  excited  by 
the  pearl  fisheries,  and  on  to  Mindanao.  Here  they 
took  some  prisoners,  who  piloted  them  south  to  the  Mo- 
luccas, and  finally,  on  November  8,  they  anchored  at 
Tidor.  These  Molucca  islands,  at  this  time,  were  at  the 
height  of  the  Malayan  power.  The  ruler  or  raja  of  Tidor 
was  Almanzar,  of  Ternate,  Corala;  the  "king"  of  Gilolo 
was  Yusef .  With  all  these  rulers  the  Spaniards  exchanged 
presents,  and  the  rajas  are  said  by  the  Spaniards  to 
have  sworn  perpetual  amnesty  to  the  Spaniards  and  ac- 
knowledged themselves  vassals  of  the  king.  In  ex- 
change for  cloths,  the  Spaniards  laid  in  a  rich  cargo  of 


THE   GEE  AT  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISCOVERIES.         83 

cloves,  sandalwood,  ginger,  cinnamon,  and  gold.  They 
established  here  a  trading-post  and  hoped  to  hold  these 
islands  against  the  Portuguese. 

The  Return  to  Spain.  —  It  was  decided  to  send  one 
ship,  the  "Victoria,"  to  Spain  by  way  of  the  Portuguese 
route  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  while  the  other  would 
return  to  America.  Accordingly  the  "Victoria,"  with  a 
little  crew  of  sixty  men,  thirteen  of  them  natives,  under 
the  command  of  Juan  Sebastian  Elcano,  set  sail.  The 
passage  was  unknown  to  the  Spaniards  and  full  of  perils. 
They  sailed  to  Timor  and  thence  out  into  the  Indian 
Ocean.  They  rounded  Africa,  sailing  as  far  south  as  42 
degrees.  Then  they  went  northward,  in  constant  peril  of 
capture  by  some  Portuguese  fleet,  encountering  storms 
and  with  scarcity  of  food.  Their  distress  must  have  been 
extreme,  for  on  this  final  passage  twenty-one  of  their 
small  number  died. 

At  Cape  Verde  Islands  they  entered  the  port  for  sup- 
plies, trusting  that  at  so  northern  a  point  their  real  voy- 
age would  not  be  suspected.  But  some  one  of  the  party, 
who  went  ashore  for  food,  in  an  hour  of  intoxication 
boasted  of  the  wonderful  journey  they  had  performed 
and  showed  some  of  the  products  of  the  Spice  Islands. 
Immediately  the  Portuguese  governor  gave  orders  for  the 
seizure  of  the  Spanish  vessel  and  Elcano,  learning  of  his 
danger,  left  his  men  who  had  gone  on  shore,  raised  sail, 
and  put  out  for  Spain. 

On  the  6th  of  September,  1522,  they  arrived  at  San- 
lucar,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalquivir  River,  on  which 
is  situated  Seville,  one  ship  out  of  the  five,  and  eighteen 
men  out  of  the  company  of  234  who  had  set  sail  almost 
three  full  years  before.  Spain  welcomed  her  worn  and 
tired  seamen  with  splendid  acclaim.  To  Elcano  was 


84  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

given  a  title  of  nobility  and  the  famous  coat-of-arms, 
showing  the  sprays  of  clove,  cinnamon,  and  nutmeg,  and 
the  effigy  of  the  globe  with  the  motto,  the  proudest  and 
worthiest  ever  displayed  on  any  adventurer's  shield, 
Primus  circumdedisti  me. 

The  First  Circumnavigation  of  the  Earth. — Thus  with 
enormous  suffering  and  loss  of  life  was  accomplished  the 
first  circumnavigation  of  the  earth.  It  proved  that  Asia 
could  be  reached,  although  by  a  long  and  circuitous  route, 
by  sailing  westward  from  Europe.  It  made  known  to 
Europe  that  the  greatest  of  all  oceans  lies  between  the 
New  World  and  Asia,  and  it  showed  that  the  earth  is  in- 
comparably larger  than  had  been  believed  and  supposed. 
It  was  the  greatest  voyage  of  discovery  that  has  ever 
been  accomplished,  and  greater  than  can  ever  be  per- 
formed again. 

New  Lands  Divided  between  Spain  and  Portugal.  —  By 
this  discovery  of  the  Philippines  and  a  new  way  to  the 
Spice  Islands,  Spain  became  engaged  in  a  long  dispute  with 
Portugal.  At  the  beginning  of  the  modern  age,  there 
was  in  Europe  no  system  of  rules  by  which  to  regulate 
conduct  between  states.  That  system  of  regulations  and 
customs  which  we  call  International  Law,  and  by  which 
states  at  the  present  time  are  guided  in  their  dealings, 
had  not  arisen.  During  the  middle  age,  disputes  between 
sovereigns  were  frequently  settled  by  reference  to  the  em- 
peror or  to  the  pope,  and  the  latter  had  frequently  asserted 
his  right  to  determine  all  such  questions  as  might  arise. 
The  pope  had  also  claimed  to  have  the  right  of  disposing 
of  all  heathen  and  newly  discovered  lands  and  peoples. 

So,  after  the  discovery  of  the  West  Indies  by  Columbus, 
on  request  of  the  Court  of  Spain,  Pope  Alexander  VI. 
divided  the  new  lands  between  them.  He  declared  that 


s  -• 


85 


86  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

all  newly  discovered  countries  to  the  west  of  a  meridian 
100  leagues  west  of  the  Azores  and  Cape  Verde  Islands 
should  be  Spanish  possessions.  A  year  later  Spain 
agreed  with  Portugal  to  shift  this  line  to  the  meridian 
370  leagues  west  of  Cape  Verde  Islands.  This  division, 
carried  on  the  same  meridian  around  the  globe,  resulted 
in  giving  India  and  Malaysia  to  Portugal  and  all  the  New 
World,  except  Brazil,  to  Spain. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  180  degrees  west  of  the  meridian 
finally  agreed  upon  extended  to  the  western  part  of  New 
Guinea,  and  not  quite  to  the  Moluccas;  but  in  the  absence 
of  exact  geographical  knowledge  both  parties  claimed 
the  Spice  Islands.  Portugal  denied  to  Spain  all  right  to 
the  Philippines  as  well,  and,  as  we  shall  see,  a  conflict 
in  the  Far  East  began,  which  lasted  nearly  through  the 
century.  Portugal  captured  the  traders  whom  Elcano 
had  left  at  Tidor,  and  broke  up  the  Spanish  station  in  the 
Spice  Islands.  The  "  Trinidad,"  the  other  ship,  which 
was  intended  to  return  to  America,  was  unable  to  sail 
against  the  strong  winds,  and  had  to  put  back  to  Tidor, 
after  cruising  through  the  waters  about  New  Guinea. 

Effect  of  the  Century  of  Discoveries.  —  This  circumnav- 
igation of  the  globe  completed  a  period  of  discovery, 
which  had  begun  a  hundred  years  before  with  the  timid, 
slow  attempts  of  the  Portuguese  along  the  coast  of  Africa. 
In  these  years  a  new  era  had  opened.  At  its  beginning 
the  European  knew  little  of  any  peoples  outside  of  his  own 
countries,  and  he  held  scarcely  any  land  outside  the 
continent  of  Europe.  At  the  end  of  a  hundred  years  the 
earth  had  become  fairly  well  known,  the  African  race, 
the  Malay  peoples,  the  American  Indians,  and  the  Pacific 
islanders  had  been  seen  and  described,  and  from  now 
on  the  history  of  the  white  race  was  to  be  connected 


T8E  GREAT  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISCOVERIES.         87 

with  that  of  these  other  races.  The  age  of  colonization, 
of  world- wide  trade  and  intercourse,  had  begun.  The 
white  man,  who  had  heretofore  been  narrowly  pressed 
in  upon  Europe,  threatened  again  and  again  with  conquest 
by  the  Mohammedan,  was  now  to  cover  the  seas  with  his 
fleets  and  all  lands  with  his  power. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  FILIPINO   PEOPLE  BEFORE  THE  ARRIVAL 
OF  THE  SPANIARDS. 

Position  of  Tribes.  —  On  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards, 
the  population  of  the  Philippines  seems  to  have  been  dis- 
tributed by  tribes  in  much  the  same  manner  as  at  present. 
Then,  as  now,  the  Bisayas  occupied  the  central  islands 
of  the  archipelago  and  some  of  the  northern  coast  of 
Mindanao.  The  Bikols,  Tagalogs,  and  Pampangos  were  in 
the  same  parts  of  Luzon  as  we  find  them  to-day.  The 
Ilokanos  occupied  the  coastal  plain  facing  the  China  Sea, 
but  since  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  they  .have  expanded 
considerably  and  their  settlements  are  now  numerous  in 
Parigasinan,  Nueva  Vizcaya,  and  the  valley  of  the  Cagayan. 

The  Number  of  People.  —  These  tribes  which  to-day 
number  nearly  7,000,000  souls,  at  the  time 'of  Magellan's 
discovery  aggregated  not  more  than  500,000.  An  early 
enumeration  of  the  population  made  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1591,  which  included  practically  all  of  these  tribes, 
gave  a  population  of  less  than  700,000.  (See  Chapter 
VIII.,  The  Philippines  Three  Hundred  Years  Ago.} 

There  are  other  facts  too  that  show  us  how  sparse  the 
population  must  have  been.  The  Spanish  expeditions 
found  many  coasts  and  islands  in  the  Bisayan  group 
without  inhabitants.  Occasionally  a  sail  or  a  canoe 
would  be  seen,  and  then  these  would  disappear  in  some 
small  "estero"  or  mangrove  swamp  and  the  land  seem  as 
unpopulated  as  before.  At  certain  points,  like  Lima- 
saua,  Butuan,  and  Bohol,  the  natives  were  more  numer- 
ous, and  Cebu  was  a  large  and  thriving  community;  but 

83 


THE  FILIPINO  PEOPLE  BEFORE  1521.  89 

the  Spaniards  had  nearly  everywhere  to  search  for  settled 
places  and  cultivated  lands. 

The  sparseness  of  population  is  also  well  indicated  by 
the  great  scarcity  of  food.  The  Spaniards  had  much 
difficulty  in  securing  sufficient  provisions.  A  small  amount 
of  rice,  a  pig  and  a  few  chickens,  were  obtainable  here  and 
there,  but  the  Filipinos  had  no  large  supplies.  After  the 
settlement  of  Manila  was  made,  a  large  part  of  the  food 
of  the  city  was  drawn  from  China.  The  very  ease  with 
which  the  Spaniards  marched  where  thejr  willed  and 
reduced  the  Filipinos  to  obedience  shows  that  the  latter 
were  weak  in  numbers.  Laguna  de  Bay  and  the  Camarines 
were  among  the  most  populous  portions  of  the  archipel- 
ago. All  of  these  things  and  others  show  that  the  Fili- 
pinos were  but  a  small  fraction  of  their  present  number. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Negritos  seem  to  have  been  more 
numerous,  or  at  least  more  in  evidence.  They  were  im- 
mediately noticed  on  the  island  of  Negros,  where  at  the 
present  they  are  few  and  confined  to  the  interior;  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  Manila  and  in  Batangas,  where  they  are  no 
longer  found,  they  were  mingling  with  the  Tagalog  popu- 
lation. 

Conditions  of  Culture.  — The  culture  of  the  various 
tribes,  which  is  now  quite  the  same  throughout  the  archi- 
pelago, presented  some  differences.  In  the  southern  Bi- 
sayas,  where  the  Spaniards  first  entered  the  archipelago, 
there  seem  to  have  been  two  kinds  of  natives:  the  hill 
dwellers,  who  lived  in  the  interior  of  the  islands  in  small 
numbers,  who  wore  garments  of  tree  bark  and  who  some- 
times built  their  houses  in  the  trees:  and  the  sea  dwellers, 
who  were  very  much  like  the  present  day  Moro  tribes 
south  of  Mindanao,  who  are  known  as  the  Samal,  and 
who  built  their  villages  over  the  sea  or  on  the  shore  and 


90  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

lived  much  in  boats.  These  were  probably  later  arrivals 
than  the  forest  people.  From  both  of  these  elements  the 
Bisaya  Filipinos  are  descended,  but  while  the  coast  people 
have  been  entirely  absorbed,  some  of  the  hill-folk  are 
still  pagan  and  uncivilized,  and  must  be  very  much  as 
they  were  when  the  Spaniards  first  came. 

The  liighest  grade  of  culture  was  in  the  settlements 
where  there  was  regular  trade  with  Borneo,  Siam,  and 
China,  and  especially  about  Manila,  where  many  Moham- 
medan Malays  had  colonized. 

Languages  of  the  Malayan  Peoples.  —  With  the  exception 
of  the  Negrito,  all  the  languages  of  the  Philippines  belong 
to  one  great  family,  which  has  been  called  the  "  Malayo- 
Polynesian."  All  are  believed  to  be  derived  from  one 
very  ancient  mother-tongue.  It  is  astonishing  how 
widely  these  Malayo-Polynesian  tongues  have  spread. 
Farthest  east  in  the  Pacific  are  the  Polynesian  languages, 
then  those  of  the  small  islands  known  as  Micronesia;  then 
Melanesian  or  Papuan;  the  Malayan  throughout  the  East 
Indian  archipelago,  and  to  the  north  the  languages  of  the 
Philippines.  But  this  is  not  all;  for  far  westward  on  the 
coast  of  Africa  is  the  island  of  Madagascar,  many  of  whose 
languages  have  no  connection  with  African  but  belong 
to  the  Malayo-Polynesian  family.1 

The  Tagalpg  Language,  —  It  should  be  a  matter  of 
great  interest  to  Filipinos  that  the  great  scientist,  Baron 

1  The  discovery  of  this  famous  relationship  is  attributed  to  the 
Spanish  Jesuit,  Abb6  Lorenzo  Hervas,  whose  notable  Catdlogo  de  las 
Lenguas  de  las  Naciones  conocidas  was  published  in  1800-05;  but  the 
similarity  of  Malay  and  Polynesian  had  been  earlier  shown  by  nat- 
uralists who  accompanied  the  second  voyage  of  the  famous  English- 
man, Captain  Cook  (1772-75).  The  full  proof,  and  the  relation  also 
of  Malagasy,  the  language  of  Madagascar,  was  given  in  1838  by  the 
great  German  philologist,  Baron  William  von  Humboldt, 


THE  FILIPINO  PEOPLE  BEFORE  1521.  91 

William  von  Humboldt,  considered  the  Tagalog  to  be  the 
richest  and  most  perfect  of  all  the  languages  of  the  Malayo- 
Polynesian  family,  and  perhaps  the  type  of  them  all.  "  It 
possesses,"  he  said,  "all  the  forms  collectively  of  which 
particular  ones  are  found  singly  in  other  dialects;  and  it 
has  preserved  them  all  with  very  trifling  exceptions  un- 
broken, and  hi  entire  harmony  and  symmetry."  The 
Spanish  friars,  on  their  arrival  in  the  Philippines,  devoted 
themselves  at  once  to  learning  the  native  dialects  and  to 
the  preparation  of  prayers  and  catechisms  in  these  native 
tongues.  They  were  very  successful  in  their  studies. 
Father  Chirino  tells  us  of  one  Jesuit  who  learned  sufficient 
Tagalog  in  seventy  days  to  preach  and  hear  confession. 
In  this  way  the  Bisayan,  the  Tagalog,  and  the  Ilokano 
were  soon  mastered. 

In  the  light  of  the  opinion  of  Von  Humboldt,  it  is  in- 
teresting to  find  these  early  Spaniards  pronouncing  the 
Tagalog  the  most  difficult  and  the  most  admirable.  "Of 
all  of  them,"  says  Padre  Chirino,  "the  one  which  most 
pleased  me  and  filled  me  with  admiration  was  the  Tagalog. 
Because,  as  I  said  to  the  first  archbishop,  and  afterwards 
to  other  serious  persons,  both  there  and  here,  I  found  in 
it  four  qualities  of  the  four  best  languages  of  the  world: 
Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and  Spanish;  of  the  Hebrew,  the 
mysteries  and  obscurities;  of  the  Greek,  the  articles  and 
the  precision  not  only  of  the  appellative  but  also  of  the 
proper  nouns;  of  the  Latin,  the  wealth  and  elegance;  and 
of  the  Spanish,  the  good  breeding,  politeness,  and  cour- 
tesy." ' 

An  Early  Connection  with  the  Hindus.  —  The  Ma- 
layan languages  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of 
words  borrowed  from  the  Sanskrit,  and  La  this  the  Tagalog, 

1  Rdacitin  de  las  Islas  Filipinos,  2d  ed.,  p.  52. 


92  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Bisayan,  and  Ilokano  are  included.  Whether  these  words 
were  passed  along  from  one  Malayan  group  to  another,  or 
whether  they  were  introduced  by  the  actual  presence  and 
power  of  the  Hindu  in  this  archipelago,  may  be  fair  ground 
for  debate;  but  the  case  for  the  latter  position  has  been  so 
well  and  brilliantly  put  by  Dr.  Pardo  de  Tavera  that  his 
conclusions  are  here  given  in  his  own  words.  "The 
words  which  Tagalog  borrowed,"  he  says,  "  are  those  which 
signify  intellectual  acts,  moral  conceptions,  emotions,  su- 
perstitions, names  of  deities,  of  planets,  of  numerals  of 
high  number,  of  botany,  of  war  and  its  results  and  conse- 
quences, and  finally  of  titles  and  dignities,  some  animals, 
instruments  of  industry,  and  the  names  of  money." 

From  the  evidence  of  these  words,  Dr.  Pardo  argues  for 
a  period  in  the  early  history  of  the  Filipinos,  not  merely 
of  commercial  intercourse,  like  that  of  the  Chinese,  but 
of  Hindu  political  and  social  domination.  "  I  do  not  be- 
lieve," he  says,  "and  I  base  my  opinion  on  the  same 
words  that  I  have  brought  together  in  this  vocabulary, 
that  the  Hindus  were  here  simply  as  merchants,  but  that 
they  dominated  different  parts  of  the  archipelago,  where 
to-day  are  spoken  the  most  cultured  languages,  —  the 
Tagalo,  the  Visayan,  the  Pampanga,  and  the  Ilocano;  and 
that  the  higher  culture  of  these  languages  comes  precisely 
from  the  influence  of  the  Hindu  race  over  the  Filipino." 

The  Hindus  in  the  Philippines.  —  "  It  is  impossible  to 
believe  that  the  Hindus,  if  they  came  only  as  merchants, 
however  great  their  number,  would  have  impressed  them- 
selves in  such  a  way  as  to  give  to  these  islanders  the  num- 
ber and  the  kind  of  words  which  they  did  give.  These 
names  of  dignitaries,  of  caciques,  of  high  functionaries  of 
the  court,  of  noble  ladies,  indicate  that  all  of  these  high 
positions  with  names  of  Sanskrit  origin  were  occupied  at 


THE  FILIPINO  PEOPLE  BEFORE  1521.  93 

one  time  by  men  who  spoke  that  language.  The  words  of 
a  similar  origin  for  objects  of  war,  fortresses,  and  battle- 
songs,  for  designating  objects  of  religious  belief,  for  su- 
perstitions, emotions,  feelings,  industrial  and  farming 
activities,  show  us  clearly  that  the  warfare,  religion, 
literature,  industry,  and  agriculture  were  at  one  time  in 
the  hands  of  the  Hindus,  and  that  this  race  was  effec- 
tively dominant  in  the  Philippines."  l 

Systems  of  Writing  among  the  Filipinos.  —  When  the 
Spaniards  arrived  in  the  Philippines,  the  Filipinos  were 
using  systems  of  writing  borrowed  from  Hindu  or  Javanese 
sources.  This  matter  is  so  interesting  that  one  can 
not  do  better  than  to  quote  in  full  Padre  Chirino's  account, 
as  he  is  the  first  of  the  Spanish  writers  to  mention  it  and 
as  his  notice  is  quite  complete. 

"So  given  are  these  islanders  to  reading  and  writing 
that  there  is  hardly  a  man,  and  much  less  a  woman,  that 
does  not  read  and  write  in  letters  peculiar  to  the  island 
of  Manila,  very  different  from  those  of  China,  Japan,  and 
of  India,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  alphabet. 

"The  vowels  are  three;  but  they  serve  for  five,  and  are, 


\Jr 


e,  i  o, u 


The  consonants  are  no  more  than  twelve,  and  they  serve 
to  write  both  consonant  and  vowel,  in  this  form.  The 
letter  alone,  without  any  point  either  above  or  below, 
sounds  with  a. 


1  Another  possible  explanation  of  the  many  Sanskrit  terms  which 
are  found  in  the  Philippine  languages,  is  that  the  period  of  contact 
between  Filipinos  and  Hindus  occurred  not  in  the  Philippines  but  in 
Java  and  Sumatra,  whence  the  ancestors  of  the  Filipinos  perhaps  came. 


94  THE  PHILIPPINES: 


Q 

I       \f 

c 

C/7 

i 

Ba 

ca        da 

& 

ha 

la 

/r»   v 

OQ 

<T 

2fr 

1 
ma 

na         pa 

sa 

ta 

ya 

Placing  the 

point  above,  each  one  sounds  with  e  or  with  i. 

i     \f    Q     £>    r~^ 

Bi 
be 

qui            di 
quo           de 

gui 
gue 

hi 
he 

li 
le 

X> 

^    \> 

ctf 

C^ 

£0* 

mi 

me 

ni           pi 
ne          pe 

si 

se 

ti 

te 

yt 

ye 

Placing  the 

point  below,  it 

sounds 

with  o  or 

with  w. 

? 

x    \f 

? 

W 

T 

bo 
bu 

co        do 
cu        du 

go 
gu 

ho 
hu 

lo 
lu 

f 

AS   \f 

9               9 

Cti 

Oo 

9 

> 

mo 
mu 

no          po 
nu          pu 

so 

su 

to 
tu 

vo 

vu 

For  instance,  in  order  to  say  '  cama/  the  two  letters  alone 
suffice. 


THE  FILIPINO  PEOPLE  BEFORE  1521.  95 

X      V 

ca    -    ma 
If  to  the     3L       there  is  placed  a  point  above,  it  will  say 

it; 

que     -     ma 
If  it  is  given  to  both  below,  it  will  say 

?    y 

co  mo 

The  final  consonants  are  supplied  or  understood  in  all 
cases,  and  so  to  say  '  cantar/  they  write 


e* 


ca      -      ta 
barba, 

G>    £>• 

ba  -    ba 

But  with  all,  and  that  without  many  evasions,  they  make 
themselves  understood,  and  they  themselves  understand 
marvellously.  And  the  reader  supplies,  with  much  skill 
and  ease,  the  consonants  that  are  lacking.  They  have 
learned  from  us  to  write  running  the  lines  from  the  left 
hand  to  the  right,  but  formerly  they  only  wrote  from 
above  downwards,  placing  the  first  line  (if  I  remember 
rightly)  at  the  left  hand,  and  continuing  with  the  others 
to  the  right,  the  opposite  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese.  .  .  . 
They  write  upon  canes  or  on  leaves  of  a  palm,  using  for 
a  pen  a  point  of  iron.  Nowadays  in  writing  not  only 


96  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

their  own  but  also  our  letters,  they  use  a  quill  very  well 
cut,  and  paper  like  ourselves. 

They  have  learned  our  language  and  pronunciation,  and 
write  as  well  as  we  do,  and  even  better;  for  they  are  so 
bright  that  they  learn  everything  with  the  greatest  ease. 
I  have  brought  with  me  handwriting  with  very  good  and 
correct  lettering.  In  Tigbauan,  I  had  in  school  a  very 
small  child,  who  in  three  months'  time  learned,  by  copy- 
ing from  well-written  letters  that  I  set  him,  to  write 
enough  better  than  I,  and  transcribed  for  me  writings  of 
importance  very  faithfully,  and  without  errors  or  mis- 
takes. But  enough  of  languages  and  letters;  now  let  us 
return  to  our  occupation  with  human  souls."  1 

Sanskrit  Source  of  the  Filipino  Alphabet. —  Besides 
the  Tagalogs,  the  Bisayas,  Pampangos,  Pangasinans,  and 
Ilokanos-had  alphabets,  or  more  properly  syllabaries  sim- 
ilar to  this  one.  Dr.  Pardo  de  Tavera  has  gathered  many 
data  concerning  them,  and  shows  that  they  were  un- 
doubtedly received  by  the  Filipinos  from  a  Sanskrit 
source. 

Early  Filipino  Writings.  —  The  Filipinos  used  this 
writing  for  setting  down  their  poems  and  songs,  which 
were  their  only  literature.  None  of  this,  however,  has 
come  down  to  us,  and  the  Filipinos  soon  adopted  the 
Spanish  alphabet,  forming  the  syllables  necessary  to  write 
their  language  from  these  letters.  As  all  these  have  pho- 
netic values,  it  is  still  very  easy  for  a  Filipino  to  learn  to 
pronounce  and  so  read  his  own  tongue.  These  old  char- 
acters lingered  for  a  couple  of  centuries,  in  certain  places. 
Padre  Totanes 2  tells  us  that  it  was  rare  in  1705  to  find  a 
person  who  could  use  them;  but  the  Tagbanwas,  a  pagan 


1  Relation  de  las  Islas  Filipinas,  2d  ed.,  pp.  58,  59,  chap.  XVII. 
*  Arte  de  la  Lengua  Tagala. 


THE  FILIPINO  PEOPLE  BEFORE  1521.  97 

people  on  the  island  of  Palawan,  use  a  similar  syllabary 
to  this  day.  Besides  poems,  they  had  songs  which  they 
sang  as  they  rowed  their  canoes,  as  they  pounded  the 
rice  from  its  husk,  and  as  they  gathered  for  feast  or  en- 
tertainment; and  especially  there  were  songs  for  the  dead. 
In  these  songs,  says  Chirino,  they  recounted  the  deeds  of 
their  ancestors  or  of  their  deities. 

Chinese  in  the  Philippines. —  Early  Trade.  —  Very  dif- 
ferent from  the  Hindu  was  the  early  influence  of  the  Chi- 
nese. There  is  no  evidence  that,  previous  to  the  Spanish 
conquest,  the  Chinese  settled  or  colonized  in  these  islands 
at  all;  and  yet  three  hundred  years  before  the  arrival  of 
Magellan  their  trading-fleets  were  coming  here  regularly 
and  several  of  the  islands  were  well  known  to  them.  One 
evidence  of  this  prehistoric  trade  is  in  the  ancient  Chinese 
jars  and  pottery  which  have  been  exhumed  in  the  vicinity 
of  Manila,  but  the  Chinese  writings  themselves  furnish  us 
even  better  proof.  About  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  though  not  earlier  than  1205,  a  Chinese  author 
named  Chao  Ju-kua  wrote  a  work  upon  the  maritime  com- 
merce of  the  Chinese  people.  One  chapter  of  his  work  is 
devoted  to  the  Philippines,  which  he  calls  the  country  of 
Mayi.1  According  to  this  record  it  is  indicated  that 
the  Chinese  were  familiar  with  the  islands  of  the  archi- 
pelago seven  hundred  years  ago.2 


1  This  name  is  derived,  in  the  opinion  of  Professor  Blumentritt, 
from  Bayi ,  or  Bay,  meaning  Laguna  de  Bay.     Professor  Meyer,  in  his 
Distribution  of  the  Negritos,  suggests  an  identification  from  this  Chinese 
record,  of  the  islands  of  Mindanao,  Palawan  (called  Pa-lao-yu)  and 
Panay,  Xegros,  Cebu,  Leyte,  Samar,  Bohol,  and  Luzon. 

2  Through  the  courtesy  of  Professor  Zulueta,  of  the  Manila  Liceo, 
permission  was  given  to  use  from  Chao  Ju-kua's  work  these  quota- 
tions, translated  from  the  Chinese  manuscript  by  Professor  Blumentritt. 
The  English  translation  is  by  Mr.  P.  L.  Stangl. 


98  THE  PHILLIPINES. 

Chinese  Description  of  the  People.  —  "The  country  of 
Mayi,"  says  this  interesting  classic,  "is  situated  to  the 
north  of  Poni  (Burney,  or  Borneo).  About  a  thousand 
families  inhabit  the  banks  of  a  very  winding  stream.  The 
natives  clothe  themselves  in  sheets  of  cloth  resembling 
bed  sheets,  or  cover  their  bodies  with  sarongs.  (The 
sarong  is  the  gay  colored,  typical  garment  of  the 
Malay.)  Scattered  through  the  extensive  forests  are  copper 
Buddha  images,  but  no  one  knows  how  they  got  there.1 

"  When  the  mer- 
chant (Chinese) 
ships  arrive  at 
this  port  they  an- 
chor in  front  of 

'      *^f£'  j^^l  1  M& 

an  open  place  .  .  . 

which  serves  as  a 
Moro  Brass  Betel  BOX.  market,   where 

they  trade  in  the 

produce  of  the  country.  When  a  ship  enters  this  port, 
the  captain  makes  presents  of  white  umbrellas  (to  the 
mandarins).  The  merchants  are  obliged  to  pay  this 
tribute  hi  order  to  obtain  the  good  will  of  these  lords." 
The  products  of  the  country  are  stated  to  be  yellow 
wax,  cotton,  pearls,  shells,  betel  nuts,  and  yuta  cloth, 
which  was  perhaps  one  of  the  several  cloths  still  woven 
of  abaca,  or  pifia.  The  articles  imported  by  the  Chinese 
were  "  porcelain,  trade  gold,  objects  of  lead,  glass  beads 
bf  all  colors,  iron  cooking-pans,  and  iron  needles." 

Tfye^Negritos.  —  Very  curious  is  the  accurate  mention 
in  this  Qhinese  writing,  of  the  Negritos,  the  first  of  all 


1  "  This  would  confirm,"  says  Professor  Blumentritt,  "  Dr.  Pardo 
de  Tavera's  view  that  in  ancient  times  the  Philippines  were  under  the 
influence  of  Buddhism  from  India." 


THE  FILIPINO  PEOPLE  BEFORE  1521.  99 

accounts  to  be  made  of  the  little  blacks.  "In  the  in- 
terior of  the  valleys  -lives  a  race  called  Hai-tan  (Aeta). 
They  are  of  low  stature,  have  round  eyes  of  a  yellow  color, 
curly  hair,  and  their  teeth  are  easily  seen  between  their 
lips.  (That  is,  probably,  not  darkened  by  betel-chewing 
or  artificial  stains.)  They  build  their  nests  in  the  treetops 
and  in  each  nest  lives  a  family,  which  only  consists  of 
from  three  to  five  persons.  They  travel  about  in  the 
densest  thickets  of  the  forests,  and,  without  being  seen 
themselves,  shoot  their  arrows  at  the  passers-by;  for  this 
reason  they  are  much  feared.  If  the  trader  (Chinese) 
throws  them  a  small  porcelain  bowl,  they  will  stoop 
down  to  catch  it  and  then  run  away  with  it,  shouting 
joyfully." 

Increase  in  Chinese  Trade. — These  junks  also  visited 
the  more  central  islands,  but  here  traffic  was  conducted 
on  the  ships,  the  Chinese  on  arrival  announcing  them- 
selves by  beating  gongs  and  the  Filipinos  coming  out  to 
them  in  their  light  boats.  Among  other  things  here 
offered  by  the  natives  for  trade  are  mentioned  "strange 
cloth,"  perhaps  sinamay  or  jusi,  and  fine  mats. 

This  Chinese  trade  continued  probably  quite  steadily 
until  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards.  Then  it  received  an 
enormous  increase  through  the  demand  for  Chinese  food- 
products  and  wares  made  by  the  Spaniards,  and  because 
of  the  value  of  the  Mexican  silver  which  the  Spaniards 
offered  in  exchange. 

Trade  with  the  Moro  Malays  of  the  South.  —  The  spread 
of  Mohammedanism  and  especially  the  foundation  of  the 
colony  of  Borneo  brought  the  Philippines  into  important 
commercial  relations  with  the  Malays  of  the  south.  Pre- 
vious to  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  these  relations  seem 
to  have  been  friendly  and  peaceful.  The  Mohammedan 


100  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Malays  sent  their  praus  northward  for  purposes  of  trade, 
and  they  were  also  settling  in  the  north  Philippines  as 
they  had  in  Mindanao. 

When  Legazpi's  fleet,  soon  after  its  arrival,  lay  near  the 
island  of  Bohol,  Captain  Martin  de  Goiti  had  a  hard  fight 
with  a  Moro  vessel  which  was  cruising  for  trade,  and  took 
six  prisoners.  One  of  them,  whom  they  call  the  "  pilot," 
was  closely  interrogated  by  the  commander  and  some 
interesting  information  obtained,  which  is  recorded  by 
Padre  San  Augustih.  Legazpi  had  a  Malay  slave  inter- 
preter with  him  and  San  Augusti'n  says  that  Padre  Urdan- 
eta  "  knew  well  the  Malayan  language."  The  pilot  said 
that  "  those  of  Borneo  brought  for  trade  with  the  Fili- 
pinos, copper  and  tin,  which  was  brought  to  Borneo  from 
China,  porcelain,  dishes,  and  bells  made  in  their  fashion, 
very  different  from  those  that  the  Christians  use,  and 
benzoin,  and  colored  blankets  from  India,  and  cooking- 
pans  made  in  China,  and  that  they  also  brought  iron 
lances  very  well  tempered,  and  knives  and  other  articles 
of  barter,  and  that  in  exchange  for  them  they  took  away 
from  the  islands  gold,  slaves,  wax,  and  a  kind  of  small 
seashell  which  they  call  '  sijueyes/  and  which  passes  for 
money  in  the  kingdom  of  Siam  and  other  places;  and  also 
they  carry  off  some  white  cloths,  of  which  there  is  a  great 
quantity  in  the  islands."  1 

Butuan,  on  the  north  coast  of  Mindanao,  seems  to  have 
been  quite  a  trading-place  resorted  to  by  vessels  from  all 
quarters.  This  region,  like  many  other  parts  of  the 
Philippines,  has  produced  from  time  immemorial  small 
quantities  of  gold,  and  all  the  early  voyagers  speak  of 
the  gold  earrings  and  ornaments  of  the  natives.  Butuan 
also  produced  sugarcane  and  was  a  trading-port  for 

1  Conquistas  de  las  Islas  Filipinas,  p.  95. 


THE  FILIPINO  PEOPLE  BEFORE  1521.  101 

slaves.  This  unfortunate  traffic  in  human  life  seems  to 
have  been  not  unusual,  and  was  doubtless  stimulated  by 
the  commerce  with  Borneo.  Junks  from  Siam  trading 
with  Cebu  were  also  encountered  by  the  Spaniards. 

Result  of  this  Intercourse  and  Commerce.  —  This  inter- 
course and  traffic  had  acquainted  the  Filipinos  with  many 
of  the  accessories  of  civilized  life  long  before  the  arrival  of 
the  Spaniards.  Their  chiefs  and  datos  dressed  in  silks,  and 
maintained  some  splendor  of  surroundings;  nearly  the 
whole  population  of  the  tribes  of  the  coast  wrote  and 


Moro  Brass  Cannon,  or  "Lantaka." 


communicated  by  means  of  a  syllabary;  vessels  from  Lu- 
zon traded  as  far  south  as  Mindanao  and  Borneo,  al- 
though the  products  of  Asia  proper  came  through  the 
fleets  of  foreigners;  and  perhaps  what  indicates  more 
clearly  than  anything  else  the  advance  the  Filipinos  were 
making  through  their  communication  with  outside  people 
is  their  use  of  firearms.  Of  this  point  there  is  no  ques- 
tion. Everywhere  in  the  vicinity  of  Manila,  on  Lubang, 
in  Pampanga,  at  Cainta  and  Laguna  de  Bay,  the  Span- 
iards encountered  forts  mounting  small  cannon,  or  "lan- 
takas."  *  The  Filipinos  seem  to  have  understood,  more- 


1  Relacidn  de  la  Conquista  de  la  Isla  de  Luzon,  1572;    in   Retana, 
Archivo  del  Bibliofilo  Filipino,  vol.  I. 


102  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

over,  the  arts  of  casting  cannon  and  of  making  powder. 
The  first  gun-factory  established  by  the  Spaniards  was  in 
charge  of  a  Filipino  from  Pampanga. 

Early  Political  and  Social  Life.  —  The  Barangay.  - 
The  weakest  side  of  the  culture  of  the  early  Filipinos  was 
their  political  and  social  organization,  and  they  were  weak 
here  in  precisely  the  same  way  that  the  now  uncivilized 
peoples  of  northern  Luzon  are  still  weak.  Their  state  did 
not  embrace  the  whole  tribe  or  nation;  it  included  simply 
the  community.  Outside  of  the  settlers  in  one  immedi- 
ate vicinity,  all  others  were  enemies  or  at  most  foreigners. 
There  were  in  the  Philippines  no  large  states,  nor  even 
great  rajas  and  sultans  such  as  were  found  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  but  instead  on  every  island  were  a  multitude 
of  small  communities,  each  independent  of  the  other  and 
frequently  waging  war. 

The  unit  of  their  political  order  was  a  little  cluster  of 
houses  of  from  thirty  to  one  hundred  families,  called  a 
"  barangay,"  which  still  exists  in  the  Philippines  as 
the  "barrio."  At  the  head  of  each  barangay  was  a  chief 
known  as  the  "dato,"  a  word  no  longer  used  in  the 
northern  Philippines,  though  it  persists  among  the  Moros 
of  Mindanao.  The  powers  of  these  datos  within  their 
small  areas  appear  to  have  been  great,  and  they  were 
treated  with  utmost  respect  by  the  people. 

The  barangays  were  grouped  together  in  tiny  federa- 
tions including  about  as  much  territory  as  the  present 
towns,  whose  affairs  were  conducted  by  the  chiefs  or 
datos,  although  sometimes  they  seem  to  have  all  been  in 
obedience  to  a  single  chief,  known  in  some  places  as  the 
"hari,"  at  other  times  by  the  Hindu  word  "raja,"  or  the 
Mohammedan  term  "sultan."  Sometimes  the  power  of 
one  of  these  rajas  seems  to  have  extended  over  the 


THE  FILIPINO  PEOPLE  BEFORE  1521.  103 

whole  of  a  small  island,  but  usually  their  "kingdoms" 
embraced  only  a  few  miles. 

Changes  Made  by  the  Spaniards.  —  The  Spaniards, 
in  enforcing  their  authority  through  the  islands,  took 
away  the  real  power  from  the  datos,  grouping  the  baran- 
gays  into  towns,  or  "  pueblos,"  and  making  the  datos, 
headmen,  caciques  or  principales.  Something  of  the  old 
distinction  between  the  dato,  or  "  principal,"  and  the 
common  man  may  be  still  represented  in  the  "  gente 
ilustrada,"  or  the  more  wealthy,  educated,  and  influential 
class  found  in  each  town,  and  the  "  gente  baja,"  or  the 
poor  and  uneducated. 

Classes  of  Filipinos  under  the  Datos.  —  Beneath  the 
datos,  according  to  Chirino  and  Morga,  there  were  three 
classes  of  Filipinos.  First  wrere  the  free  "  maharlika,"  who 
paid  no  tribute  to  the  dato,  but  who  accompanied  him  to 
war,  rowed  his  boat  when  he  went  on  a  journey,  and 
attended  him  hi  his  house.  This  class  is  called  by  Morga 
"  timauas."  * 

Then  there  was  a  very  large  class,  wrho  appear  to  have 
been  freedmen  or  liberated  slaves,  who  had  acquired  their 
own  homes  and  lived  with  their  families,  but  who  owed 
to  dato  or  maharlika  heavy  debts  of  service;  to  sow  and 
harvest  in  his  ricefields,  to  tend  his  fish-traps,  to  row  his 
canoe,  to  build  his  house,  to  attend  him  when  he  had 
guests,  and  to  perform  any  other  duties  that  the  chief 
might  command.  These  semi-free  were  called  "aliping 
namamahay,"  and  their  condition  of  bondage  descended 
to  their  children. 

Beneath  these  existed  a  class  of  slaves.  These  were  the 
"siguiguiliris,"  and  they  were  numerous.  Their  slavery 


1  Sucesos  de  las  Filipinos,  p.  297. 


104  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

arose  in  several  ways.  Some  were  those  who  as  children 
had  been  captured  in  war  and  their  lives  spared.  Some 
became  slaves  by  selling  their  freedom  in  times  of  hunger. 
But  most  of  them  became  slaves  through  debt,  which  de- 
scended from  father  to  son.  A  debt  of  five  or  six  pesos 
was  enough  in  some  cases  to  deprive  a  man  of  his  freedom. 
'These  slaves  were  absolutely  owned  by  their  lord,  who 
could  theoretically  sell  them  like  cattle;  but,  in  spite  of 
its  bad  possibilities,  this  Filipino  slavery  was  apparently 
not  of  a  cruel  or  distressing  nature.  The  slaves  frequently 
associated  on  kindly  relations  with  their  masters  and  were 
not  overworked.  This  form  of  slavery  still  persists  in  the 
Philippines  among  the  Moros  of  Mindanao  and  Jolo.  Chil- 
dren of  slaves  inherited  their  parents'  slavery.  If  one 
parent  was  free  and  the  other  slave,  the  first,  third,  and 
fifth  children  were  free  and  the  second,  fourth,  and  sixth 
slaves.  This  whole  matter  of  inheritance  of  slavery  was 
curiously  worked  out  in  details. 

Life  in  the  Barangay.  —  Community  feeling  was  very 
strong  within  the  barangay.  A  man  could  not  leave  his 
own  barangay  for  life  in  another  without  the  consent  of 
the  community  and  the  payment  of  money.  If  a  man  of 
one  barrio  married  a  woman  of  another,  their  children 
were  divided  between  the  two  barangay s.  The  barangay 
was  responsible  for  the  good  conduct  of  its  members,  and 
if  one  of  them  suffered  an  injury  from  a  man  outside,  the 
whole  barangay  had  to  be  appeased.  Disputes  and  wrongs 
between  members  of  the  same  barangay  were  referred  to 
a  number  of  old  men,  who  decided  the  matter  in  accord- 
ance with  the  customs  of  the  tribe,  which  were  handed 
down  by  tradition.1 

1  These  data  are  largely  taken  from  the  account  of  the  customs 
of  the  Tagalog  prepared  by  Friar  Juan  de  Plasencia,  in  1589,  at  the 


THE  FILIPINO  PEOPLE   BEFORE  1521.  105 

The  Religion  of  the  Filipinos.  —  The  Filipinos  on  the 
arrival  of  the  Spaniards  were  fetish-worshipers,  but  they 
had  one  spirit  whom  they  believed  was  the  greatest  of  all 
and  the  creator  or  maker  of  things.  The  Tagalogs  called 
this  deity  Bathala,1  the  Bisayas,  Loon,  and  the  Ilokanos, 
Kabunian.  They  also  worshiped  the  spirits  of  their  an- 
cestors, which  were  represented  by  small  images  called 
"anitos."  Fetishes,  which  are  any  objects  believed  to. 
possess  miraculous  power,  were  common  among  the  people, 
and  idols  or  images  were  worshiped.  Pigafetta  describes 
some  idols  which  he  saw  hi  Cebu,  and  Chirino  tells  us  that, 
within  the  memory  of  Filipinos  whom  he  knew,  they  had 
idols  of  stone,  wood,  bone,  or  the  tooth  of  a  crocodile,  and 
that  there  were  some  of  gold. 

They  also  reverenced  animals  and  birds,  especially  the 
crocodile,  the  crow,  and  a  mythical  bird  of  blue  or  yellow 
color,  whch  was  called  by  the  name  of  their  deity  Bathala.2 
They  had  no  temples  or  public  places  of  worship,  but 
each  one  had  his  anitos  hi  his  own  house  and  performed 
his  sacrifices  and  acts  of  worship  there.  As  sacrifices 
they  killed  pigs  or  chickens,  and  made  such  occasions 
times  of  feasting,  song,  and  drunkenness.  The  life  of  the 


request  of  Dr.  Santiago  de  Vera,  the  governor  and  president  of  the 
Audiencia.  Although  there  are  references  to  it  by  the  early  his- 
torians of  the  Philippines,  this  little  code  did  not  see  the  light  until 
a  few  years  ago,  when  a  manuscript  copy  was  discovered  in  the  con- 
vent of  the  Franciscans  at  Manila,  by  Dr.  Pardo  de  Tavera,  and  was 
by  him  published.  It  treats  of  slave-holding,  penalties  for  crime, 
inheritances,  adoption,  dowry,  and  marriage.  (Las  Costumbres  de  los 
Tagdlog  en  Filipinos,  segun  el  Padre  Plasencia,  by  T.  H.  Pardo  de 
Tavera.  Madrid,  1892.) 

1  See  on  this  matter  Diccionario  Mitologico  de  Filipinos,  by  Blu- 
mentritt;  Retana,  Archivo  del  Biblidfilo  Filipino,  vol.  II. 

2  Tliis  word  is  of  Sanskrit  origin  and  is  common  throughout  Malay- 
sia. 


106  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Filipino  was  undoubtedly  filled  with  superstitious  fears 
and  imaginings. 

The  Mohammedan  Malays.  —  The  Mohammedans  out- 
side of  southern  Mindanao  and  Jolo,  had  settled  in  the 
vicinity  of  Manila  Bay  and  on  Mindoro,  Lubang,  and 
adjacent  coasts  of  Luzon.  The  spread  of  Mohammedan- 
ism was  stopped  by  the  Spaniards,  although  it  is  nar- 
rated that  for  a  long  time  many  of  those  living  on  the 
shores  of  Manila  Bay  refused  to  eat  pork,  which  is  for- 
bidden by  the  Koran,  and  practiced  the  rite  of  circum- 
cision. As  late  as  1583,  Bishop  Salazar,  in  writing  to  the 
king  of  affairs  in  the  Philippines,  says  the  Moros  had 
preached  the  law  of  Mohammed  to  great  numbers  in  these 
islands  and  by  this  preaching  many  of  the  Gentiles  had 
become  Mohammedans;  and  further  he  adds,  "Those  who 
have  received  this  foul  law  guard  it  with  much  persistence 
and  there  is  great  difficulty  in  making  them  abandon  it; 
and  with  cause  too,  for  the  reasons  they  give,  to  our 
shame  and  confusion,  are  that  they  were  better  treated 
by  the  preachers  of  Mohammed  than  they  have  been  by 
the  preachers  of  Christ."  l 

Material  Progress  of  the  Filipinos.  —  The  material  sur- 
roundings of  the  Filipino  before  the  arrival  of  the  Span- 
iards were  in  nearly  every  way  quite  as  they  are  to-day. 
The  "center  of  population"  of  each  town  to-day,  with  its 
great  church,  tribunal,  stores  and  houses  of  stone  and 
wood,  is  certainly  in  marked  contrast;  but  the  appear- 
ance of  a  barrio  a  little  distance  from  the  center  is 
to-day  probably  much  as  it  was  then.  Then,  as  now, 
the  bulk  of  the  people  lived  in  humble  houses  of  bam- 


1  Relacidn  de  las  Cosas  de  las  Filipinos  hecha  por  Sr.  Domingo  de 
Salazar,  Primer  obispo  de  dichas  islas,  1583;  in  Retana,  Archivo, 
vol.  III. 


THE  FILIPINO  PEOPLE  BEFORE  1521.  107 

boo  and  nipa  raised  on  piles  above  the  dampness  of 
the  soil;  then,  as  now,  the  food  was  largely  rice  and  the 
excellent  fish  which  abound  in  river  and  sea.  There  were 
on  the  water  the  same  familiar  bancas  and  fish  corrals,  and 
on  land  the  rice  fields  and  cocoanut  groves.  The  Fili- 
pinos had  then  most  of  the  present  domesticated  animals, 
—  dogs,  cats,  goats,  chickens,  and  pigs,  —  and  perhaps  hi 
Luzon  the  domesticated  buffalo,  although  this  animal  was 
widely  introduced  into  the  Philippines  from  China  after 
the  Spanish  conquest.  Horses  followed  the  Spaniards 
and  their  numbers  were  increased  by  the  bringing  in  of 
Chinese  mares,  whose  importation  is  frequently  mentioned. 

The  Spaniards  introduced  also  the  cultivation  of  to- 
bacco, coffee,  and  cacao,  and  perhaps  also  the  native  corn 
of  America,  the  maize,  although  Pigafetta  says  they  found 
it  already  growing  in  the  Bisayas. 

The  Filipino  has  been  affected  by  these  centuries  of 
Spanish  sovereignty  far  less  on  his  material  side  than  he 
has  on  his  spiritual,  and  it  is  mainly  in  the  deepening  and 
elevating  of  his  emotional  and  mental  life  and  not  in  the 
bettering  of  his  material  condition  that  advance  has  been 
made. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  SPANISH  SOLDIER  AND  THE  SPANISH 
MISSIONARY. 

History  of  the  Philippines  as  a  Part  of  the  History  of 
the  Spanish  Colonies.  —  We  have  already  seen  how  the 
Philippines  were  discovered  by  Magellan  in  his  search  for 
the  Spice  Islands.  Brilliant  and  romantic  as  is  the  story 
of  that  voyage,  it  brought  no  immediate  reward  to  Spain. 
Portugal  remained  in  her  enjoyment  of  the  Eastern  trade 
and  nearly  half  a  century  elapsed  before  Spain  obtained 
a  settlement  in  these  islands.  But  if  for  a  time  he  neg- 
lected the  Far  East,  the  Spaniard  from  the  Peninsula 
threw  himself  with  almost  incredible  energy  and  devo- 
tion into  the  material  and  spiritual  conquest  of  America. 
All  the  greatest  achievements  of  the  Spanish  soldier  and 
the  Spanish  missionary  had  been  secured  within  fifty 
years  from  the  day  when  Columbus  sighted  the  West 
Indies. 

In  order  to  understand  the  history  of  the  Philippines, 
we  must  not  forget  that  these  islands  formed  a  part  of 
this  great  colonial  empire  and  were  under  the  same  ad- 
ministration; that  for  over  two  centuries  the  Philippines 
were  reached  through  Mexico  and  to  a  great  extent  influ- 
enced by  Mexico;  that  the  same  governors,  judges,  and 
soldiers  held  office  in  both  hemispheres,  passing  from 
America  to  the  Philippines  and  being  promoted  from  the 
Islands  to  the  higher  official  positions  of  Mexico  and  Peru. 
So  to  understand  the  rule  of  Spain  in  the  Philippines,  we 
must  study  the  great  administrative  machinery  and  the 

108 


SPANISH  SOLDIER  AND  MISSIONARY.  109 

great  body  of  laws  which  were  developed  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Indies.1 

Character  of  the  Spanish  Explorers.  —  The  conquests 
themselves  were  largely  effected  through  the  enterprise 
and  wealth  of  private  individuals;  but  these  men  held 
commissions  from  the  Spanish  crown,  their  actions  were 
subject  to  strict  royal  control,  and  a  large  proportion  of 
the  profits  and  plunder  of  their  expeditions  were  paid  to 
the  royal  treasury.  Upon  some  of  these  conquerors  the 
crown  bestowed  the  proud  title  of  "  adelantado."  The 
Spanish  nobility  threw  themselves  into  these  hazardous 
undertakings  with  the  courage  and  fixed  determination 
born  of  their  long  struggle  with  the  Moors.  Out  of  the 
soul-trying  circumstances  of  Western  conquest  many  ob- 
scure men  rose,  through  their  brilliant  qualities  of  spirit, 
to  positions  of  eminence  and  power;  but  the  exalted  of- 
fices of  viceroy  and  governor  were  reserved  for  the  titled 
favorites  of  the  king. 

The  Royal  Audiencia.  —  Very  early  the  Spanish  court,  . 
in  order  to  protect  its  own  authority,  found  it  necessary 
to  succeed  the  ambitious  and  adventurous  conqueror  by  a 
ruler  in  close  relationship  with  and  absolute  dependence 
on  the  royal  will.  Thus  in  Mexico,  Corte"s  the  conqueror 
was  removed  and  replaced  by  the  viceroy  Mendoza,  who 
established  upon  the  conquests  of  the  former  the  great 
Spanish  colony  of  New  Spain,  to  this  day  the  most  suc- 
cessful of  all  the  states  planted  by  Spain  in  America. 

To  limit  the  power  of  the  governor  or  viceroy,  as  well 


1  The  foundation  and  character  of  this  great  colonial  administra- 
tion have  been  admirably  described  by  the  Honorable  Bernard  Moses, 
United  States  Philippine  Commissioner  and  the  first  Secretary  of 
Public  Instruction,  in  his  work,  The  Establishment  of  Spanish  Rule  in 
America. 


110  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

as  to  act  as  a  supreme  court  for  the  settlement  of  actions 
and  legal  questions,  was  created  the  "  Royal  Audiencia." 
This  was  a  body  of  men  of  noble  rank  and  learned  in  the 
law,  sent  out  from  Spain  to  form  in  each  country  a  co- 
lonial court;  but  its  powers  were  not  alone  judicial;  they 
were  also  administrative.  In  the  absence  of  the  governor 
the  audiencia  assumed  his  duties. 

Treatment  of  the  Natives  by  the  Spanish.  —  In  his  treat- 
ment of  the  natives,  whose  lands  he  captured,  the  Span- 
ish king  attempted  three  things,  —  first,  to  secure  to  the 
colonist  and  to  the  crown  the  advantages  of  their  labor, 
second,  to  convert  the  Indians  to  the  Christian  religion  as 
maintained  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  third,  to 
protect  them  from  cruelty  and  inhumanity.  Edict  after 
edict,  law  after  law,  issued  from  the  Spanish  throne  with 
these  ends  in  view.  As  they  stand  upon  the  greatest  of 
colonial  law-books,  the  Recopilacidn  de  Leyes  de  las  Indias, 
they  display  an  a.dmirable  sensitiveness  to  the  needs  of 
the  Indian  and  an  appreciation  of  the  dangers  to  which 
he  was  subjected;  but  in  the  actual  practice  these  benefi- 
cent provisions  were  largely  useless. 

The  first  and  third  of  Spain's  purposes  in  her  treatment 
of  the  native  proved  incompatible.  History  has  shown 
that  liberty  and  enlightenment  can  not  be  taken  from  a 
race  with  one  hand  and  protection  given  it  with  the  other. 
All  classes  of  Spain's  colonial  government  were  frankly  in 
pursuit  of  wealth.  Greed  filled  them  all,  and  was  the 
mainspring  of  every  discovery  and  every  settlement.  The 
king  wanted  revenue  for  his  treasury;  the  noble  and  the 
soldier,  booty  for  their  private  purse;  the  friar,  wealth  for 
his  order;  the  bishop,  power  for  his  church.  All  this 
wealth  had  to  come  out  of  the  native  toiler  on  the  lands 
which  the  Spanish  conqueror  had  seized;  and  while  noble 


SPANISH  SOLDIER  AND  MISSIONARY.  Ill 

motives  were  probably  never  absent  and  at  certain  times 
prevailed,  yet  in  the  main  the  native  of  America  and  of 
the  Philippines  was  a  sufferer  under  the  hand  and  power 
of  the  Spaniard. 

"The  Encomenderos."  —  Spain's  system  of  controlling 
the  lives  and  the  labor  of  the  Indians  was  based  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  on  the  feudal  system,  still  surviving  in  the 
Peninsula  at  the  time  of  her  colonial  conquests.  The 
captains  and  soldiers  and  priests  of  her  successful  con- 
quests had  assigned  to  them  great  estates  or  fruitful  lands 
with  their  native  inhabitants,  which  they  managed  and 
ruled  for  their  own  profit.  Such  estates  were  called  first 
"repartimientos."  But  very  soon  it  became  the  practice, 
hi  America,  to  grant  large  numbers  of  Indians  to  the  ser- 
vice of  a  Spaniard,  who  had  over  them  the  power  of  a 
master  and  \vho  enjoyed  the  profits  of  their  labor.  In 
return  he  was  supposed  to  provide  for  the  conversion  of 
the  Indians  and  their  religious  instruction.  Such  a  grant 
of  Indians  was  called  an  "encomienda."  The  "encomen- 
dero"  was  not  absolute  lord  of  the  lives  and  properties  of 
the  Indians,  for  elaborate  laws  were  framed  for  the  latter's 
protection.  Yet  the  granting  of  subjects  without  the  land 
on  which  they  lived  made  possible  their  transfer  and  sale 
from  one  encomendero  to  another,  and  hi  this  way  thou- 
sands of  Indians  of  America  were  made  practically  slaves, 
and  were  forced  into  labor  in  the  mines. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  whole  system  was  attacked 
by  the  Dominican  priest,  Las  Casas,  a  truly  noble  char- 
acter in  the  history  of  American  colonization,  and  various 
efforts  were  made  in  America  to  limit  the  encomiendas  and 
to  prevent  their  introduction  into  Mexico  and  Peru  ;  but 
the  great  power  of  the  encomendero  in  America,  together 
with  the  influence  of  the  Church,  which  held  extensive 


112  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

encomiendas,  had  been  sufficient  to  extend  the  institution, 
even  against  Las  Casas'  impassioned  remonstrances.  Its 
abolition  in  Mexico  was  decreed  in  1544,  but  "  commis- 
sioners representing  the  municipality  of  Mexico  and  the 
religious  orders  were  sent  to  Spain  to  ask  the  king  to  re- 
voke at  least  those  parts  of  the  'New  Laws'  which 
threatened  the  interests  of  the  settlers.  By  a  royal  decree 
of  October  20,  1545,  the  desired  revocation  was  granted. 
This  action  filled  the  Spanish  settlers  with  joy  and  the  en- 
slaved Indians  with  despair."  l 

Thus  was  the  institution  early  established  as  a  part 
of  the  colonial  system  and  came  with  the  conquerors  to 
the  Philippines. 

Restrictions  on  Colonization  and  Commerce.  —  For  the 
management  of  all  colonial  affairs  the  king  created  a 
great  board,  or  bureau,  known  as  the  "Council  of  the  In- 
dies," which  sat  in  Madrid  and  whose  members  were  among 
the  highest  officials  of  Spain.  The  Spanish  government 
exercised  the  closest  supervision  over  all  colonial  matters, 
and  colonization  was  never  free.  All  persons,  wares,  and 
ships,  passing  from  Spain  to  any  of  her  colonial  posses- 
sions, were  obliged  to  pass  through  Seville,  and  this  one 
port  alone. 

This  wealthy  ancient  city,  situated  on  the  river  Gua- 
dalquivir in  southwestern  Spain,  was  the  gateway  to  the 
Spanish  Empire.  From  this  port  went  forth  the  mailed 
soldier,  the  robed  friar,  the  adventurous  noble,  and  the 
brave  and  highborn  Spanish  ladies,  who  accompanied  their 
husbands  to  such  great  distances  over  the  sea.  And  back 
to  this  port  were  brought  the  gold  of  Peru,  the  silver  of 
Mexico,  and  the  silks  and  embroideries  of  China,  dis- 
patched through  the  Philippines. 

1  Moses:  Establishment  of  Spanish  Rule  in  America,  p.  12. 


SPANISH  SOLDIER  AND  MISSIONARY.  113 

It  must  be  observed  that  all  intercourse  between  Spain 
and  her  colonies  was  rigidly  controlled  by  the  govern- 
ment. Spain  sought  to  create  and  maintain  an  exclusive 
monopoly  of  her  colonial  trade.  To  enforce  and  direct 
this  monopoly,  there  was  .at  Seville  the  Commercial 
House,  or  "Casa  de  Contratacion."  No  one  could  sail 
from  Spain  to  a  colonial  possession  without  a  permit  and 
after  government  registration.  No  one  could  send  out 
goods  or  import  them  except  through  the  Commercial 
House  and  upon  the  payment  of  extraordinary  imposts. 
Trade  was  absolutely  forbidden  to  any  except  Spaniards. 
And  by  her  forts  and  fleets  Spain  strove  to  isolate  her  col- 
onies from  the  approach  of  Portuguese,  Dutch,  or  English, 
whose  ships,  no  less  daringly  manned  than  those  of  Spain 
herself,  were  beginning  to  traverse  the  seas  in  search 
of  the  plunder  and  spoils  of  foreign  conquest  and  trade. 

Summary  of  the  Colonial  Policy  of  Spain.  —  Spain 
sought  foreign  colonies,  first,  for  the  spoils  of  accumulated 
wealth  that  could  be  seized  and  carried  away  at  once,  and, 
secondly,  for  the  income  that  could  be  procured  through 
the  labor  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  lands  she  gained.  In 
framing  her  government  and  administration  of  her  colo- 
nies, she  sought  primarily  the  political  enlightenment  and 
welfare  neither  of  the  Spanish  colonist  nor  the  native  race, 
but  the  glory,  power,  and  patronage  of  the  crown.  The 
commercial  and  trade  regulations  were  devised,  not  to 
develop  the  resources  and  increase  the  prosperity  of  the 
colonies,  but  to  add  wealth  to  the  Peninsula.  Yet  the 
purposes  of  Spain  were  far  from  being  wholly  selfish. 
With  zeal  and  success  she  sought  the  conversion  of  the 
heathen  natives,  whom  she  subjected,  and  in  this  showed 
a  humanitarian  interest  in  advance  of  the  Dutch  and  Eng- 
lish, who  rivaled  her  in  colonial  empire. 


114  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  colonial  ideals  under  which  the  policy  of  Spain  was 
framed  were  those  of  the  times.  In  the  centuries  that 
have  succeeded,  public  wisdom  and  conscience  on  these 
matters  have  immeasurably  improved.  Nations  no  longer 
make  conquests  frankly  to  exploit  them,  but  the  public 
opinion  of  the  world  demands  that  the  welfare  of  the  co- 
lonial subject  be  sought  and  that  he  be  protected  from 
official  greed.  'There  is  great  advance  still  to  be  made. 
It  can  hardly  be  said  that  the  world  yet  recognizes  that  a 
stronger  people  should  assist  a  weaker  without  assurance 
of  material  reward,  but  this  is  the  direction  in  which  the 
most  enlightened  feeling  is  advancing.  Every  undertak- 
ing of  the  white  race,  which  has  such  aims  in  view,  is  an 
experiment  worthy  of  profound  interest  and  solicitous 
sympathy. 

Result  of  the  Voyage  of  Magellan  and  Elcano.  —  The 
mind  of  the  Spanish  adventurer  was  greatly  excited  by 
the  results  of  Sebastian  Elcano's  voyage.  Here  was  the 
opportunity  for  rich  trade  and  great  profit.  Numerous 
plans  were  laid  before  the  king,  one  of  them  for  the  build- 
ing of  an  Indian  trading-fleet  and  an  annual  voyage  to  the 
Moluccas  to  gather  a  great  harvest  of  spices. 

Portugal  protested  against  this  move  until  the  question 
of  her  claim  to  the  Moluccas,  under  the  division  of  Pope 
Alexander,  could  be  settled.  The  exact  longitude  of  Ter- 
nate  west  from  the  line  370  leagues  beyond  the  Verde 
Islands  was  not  well  known.  Spaniards  argued  that  it 
was  less  than  180  degrees,  and,  therefore,  in  spite  of  Por- 
tugal's earlier  discovery,  belonged  to  them.  The  pilot, 
Medina,  for  example,  explained  to  Charles  V.  that  from 
the  meridian  370  degrees  west  of  San  Anton  (the  most 
westerly  island  of  the  Verde  group)  to  the  city  of  Mexico 
was  59  degrees,  from  Mexico  to  Navidad,  9  degrees,  and 


SPANISH  SOLDIER  AND  MISSIONARY.  115 

from  this  port  to  Cebu,  100  degrees,  a  total  of  only  168 
degrees,  leaving  a  margin  of  12  degrees;  therefore  by 
the  final  treaty  the  Indies,  Moluccas,  Borneo,  Gilolo,  and 
the  Philippines  were  Spain's.1  A  great  council  of  em- 
bassadors  and  cosmographers  was  held  at  Badajoz  in  1524, 
but  reached  no  agreement.  Spain  announced  her  resolu- 
tion to  occupy  the  Moluccas,  and  Portugal  threatened 
with  death  the  Spanish  adventurers  who  should  be  found 
there. 

The  First  Expedition  to  the  Philippines.  —  Spain  acted 
immediately  upon  her  determination,  and  hi  1525  dis- 
patched an  expedition  under  Jofre  de  Loaisa  to  reap  the 
fruits  of  Magellan's  discoveries.2  The  captain  of  one  ves- 
sel was  Sebastian  Elcano,  who  completed  the  voyage  of 
Magellan.  On  his  ship  sailed  Andres  de  Urdaneta,  who 
later  became  an  Augustinian  friar  and  accompanied  the 
expedition  of  Legazpi  that  finally  effected  the  settlement 
of  the  Philippines.  Not  without  great  hardship  and  losses 
did  the  fleet  pass  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  enter  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  In  mid-ocean  Loaisa  died,  and  four  days 
later  the  famous  Sebastian  Elcano.  Following  a  route 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  Magellan,  the  fleet  reached 
first  the  Ladrone  Islands  and  later  the  coast  of  Mindanao. 
From  here  they  attempted  to  sail  to  Cebu,  but  the  strong 
northeast  monsoon  drove  them  southward  to  the  Mo- 
luccas, and  they  landed  on  Tidor  the  last  day  of  the  year 
1526. 


1  Demarcation  del  Maluco,  hecha  por  el  maestro  Medina,  in  Docu- 
mentor ineditos,  vol.  V.,  p.  552. 

2  This  and  subsequent  voyages  are  given  in  the  Documenlos  ineditos, 
vol.  V.,  and  a  graphic  account  is  in  Argensola's  Conquista  de  las  Islas 
Molucas.     They  are  also  well  narrated   in   English  by  Burney,  Du- 
coveries  in  the  South  Sea,  vol.  I.,  chapters  V.,  XII.,  and  XIV. 


116  THE  PHILIPPINES.  . 

The  Failure  of  the  Expedition.  —  The  Portuguese 
were  at  this  moment  fighting  to  reduce  the  native  rajas  of 
these  islands  to  subjection.  They  regarded  the  Spaniards 
as  enemies,  and  each  party  of  Europeans  was  shortly  en- 
gaged in  fighting  and  in  inciting  the  natives  against  the 
other.  The  condition  of  the  Spaniards  became  desperate 
in  the  extreme,  and  indicates  at  what  cost  of  life  the  con- 
quests of  the  sixteenth  century  were  made.  Their  ships 
had  become  so  battered  by  storm  as  to  be  no  longer  sea- 
worthy. The  two  officers,  who  had  successively  followed 
Loaisa  and  Elcano  in  command,  had  likewise  perished. 
Of  the  450  men  who  had  sailed  from  Spain,  but  120  now 
survived.  These,  under  the  leadership  of  Hernando  de  la 
Torre,  threw  up  a  fort  on  the  island  of  Tidor,  unable  to 
go  farther  or  to  retire,  and  awaited  hoped-for  succor  from 
Spain. 

Relief  came,  not  from  the  Peninsula,  but  from  Mexico. 
Under  the  instructions  of  the  Spanish  king,  in  Octo- 
ber, 1527*  Cortes  dispatched  from  Mexico  a  small -expedi- 
tion in  charge  of  D.  Alvaro  de  Saavedra.  Swept  rapidly 
by  the  equatorial  trades,  in  a  few  months  Saavedra  had 
traversed  the  Carolines,  reprovisioned  on  Mindanao,  and 
reached  the  survivors  on  Tidor.  Twice  they  attempted 
to  return  to  New  Spain,  but  strong  trade  winds  blow 
without  cessation  north  and  south  on  either  side  of  the 
equator  for  the  space  of  more  than  twelve  hundred  miles, 
and  the  northern  latitude  of  calms  and  prevailing  westerly 
winds  were  not  yet  known. 

Twice  Saavedra  beat  his  way  eastward  among  the 
strange  islands  of  Papua  and  Melanesia,  only  to  be  at 
last  driven  back  upon  Tidor  and  there  to  die.  The  sur- 
vivors were  forced  to  abandon  the  Moluccas.  By  sur- 
rendering to  the  Portuguese  they  were  assisted  to  return 


SPANISH  SOLDIER  AND  MISSIONARY.  117 

to  Europe  by  way  of  Malacca,  Ceylon,  and  Africa,  and 
they  arrived  at  Lisbon  in  1536,  the  survivors  of  Loaisa's 
expedition,  having  been  gone  from  Spain  eleven  years. 

The  efforts  of  the  Spanish  crown  to  obtain  possession 
of  the  Spice  Islands,  the  Moluccas  and  Celebes,  with  their 
coveted  products  of  nutmeg,  cinnamon,  and  pepper,  were 
for  the  time  suspended.  By  the  Treaty  of  Zaragoza 
(1529)  the  Emperor,  Charles  V.,  for  the  sum  of  three 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  gold  ducats,  mortgaged  his 
claim  to  the  Moluccas.  For  thirteen  years  the  provisions 
of  this  treaty  were  respected  by  the  Spaniards,  and  then 
another  attempt  was  made  to  obtain  a  foothold  in  the 
East  Indies. 

The  Second  Expedition  to  the  Philippines.  —  The  facts 
that  disaster  had  overwhelmed  so  many,  that  two  oceans 
must  be  crossed,  and  that  no  sailing-route  from  Asia  back 
to  America  was  known,  did  not  deter  the  Spaniards  from 
their  perilous  conquests;  and  in  1542  another  expedition 
sailed  from  Mexico,  under  command  of  Lopez  de  Villa- 
lobos,  to  explore  the  Philippines  and  if  possible  to  reach 
China. 

Across  the  Pacific  they  made  a  safe  and  pleasant 
voyage.  In  the  warm  waters  of  the  Pacific  they  sailed 
among  those  wonderful  coral  atolls,  rings  of  low  shore, 
decked  with  palms,  grouped  hi  beautiful  archipelagoes, 
whose  appearance  has  never  failed  to  delight  the  navi- 
gator, and  whose  composition  is  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing subjects  known  to  students  of  the  earth's  structure  and 
history.  Some  of  these  many  islands  Villalobos  took  pos- 
session of  hi  the  name  of  Spain.  These  were  perhaps  the 
Pelew  Islands  or  the  Carolines. 

At  last  Villalobos  reached  the  east  coast  of  Mindanao, 
but  after  some  deaths  and  sickness  they  sailed  again  and 


118  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

were  carried  south  by  the  monsoon  to  the  little  island 
of  Sarangani,  south  of  the  southern  peninsula  of  Mindanao. 
The  natives  were  hostile,  but  the  Spaniards  drove  them 
from  their  stronghold  and  made  some  captures  of  musk, 
amber,  oil,  and  gold-dust.  In  need  of  provisions,  they 
planted  the  maize,  or  Indian  corn,  the  wonderful  cereal  of 
America,  which  yields  so  bounteously,  and  so  soon  after 
planting.  Food  was  greatly  needed  by  the  Spaniards  and 
was  very  difficult  to  obtain. 

The  Naming  of  the  Islands.  —  Villalobos  equipped  a 
small  vessel  and  sent  it  northward  to  try  to  reach  Cebu. 
This  vessel  reached  the  coast  of  Samar.  Villalobos  gave 
to  the  island  the  name  of  Felipina,  in  honor  of  the  Spanish 
Infante,  or  heir  apparent,  Philip,  who  was  soon  to  succeed 
his  father  Charles  V.  as  King  Philip  the  Second  of  Spain. 
Later  in  his  correspondence  with  the  Portuguese  Villalobos 
speaks  of  the  archipelago  as  Las  Felipinas.  Although  for 
many  years  the  title  of  the  Islas  del  Poniente  continued 
hi  use,  Villalobos'  name  of  Filipinas  gradually  gained  place 
and  has  lived. 

The  End  of  the  Expedition.  —  While  on  Sarangani 
demands  were  made  by  the  Portuguese,  who  claimed 
that  Mindanao  belonged  with  Celebes,  and  that  the  Span- 
iards should  leave.  Driven  from  Mindanao  by  lack 
of  food  and  hostility  of  the  natives,  Villalobos  was 
blown  southward  by  storms  to  Gilolo.  Here,  after  long 
negotiations,  the  Portuguese  compelled  him  to  surrender. 
The  survivors  of  the  expedition  dispersed,  some  remain- 
ing in  the  Indies,  and  some  eventually  reaching  Spain; 
but  Villalobos,  overwhelmed  by  discouragement,  died  on 
the  island  of  Amboyna.  The  priest  who  ministered  to 
him  in  his  last  hours  was  the  famous  Jesuit  missionary  to 
the  Indies,  Saint  Francis  Xavier. 


SPANISH  SOLDIER  AND  MISSIONARY.  119 

Twenty-three  years  were  to  elapse  after  the  sailing  of 
Villulobos'  fleet  before  another  Spanish  expedition  should 
reach  the  Philippines.  The  year  1565  dates  the  perma- 
nent occupation  of  the  archipelago  by  the  Spanish. 

Increase  in  Political  Power  of  the  Church.  —  Under 
Philip  the  Second,  the  champion  of  ecclesiasticism,  the 
Spanish  crown  cemented  the  union  of  the  monarchy  with 
the  church  and  devoted  the  resources  of  the  empire,  not 
only  to  colonial  acquisition,  but  to  combating  the  Pro- 
testant revolution  on  the  one  hand  and  heathenism  on 
the  other.  The  Spanish  king  effected  so  close  a  union  of 
the  church  and  state  in  Spain,  that  from  this  time  on 
religious  issues  increasingly  gained  in  importance,  and 
profoundly  influenced  the  policy  and  fate  of  the  nation. 
The  policy  of  Philip  the  Second,  however,  brought  upon 
Spain  the  revolt  of  the  Dutch  Lowlands  and  the  wars 
with  England,  and  her  struggle  with  these  two  nations 
drained  her  resources  both  on  land  and  sea,  and  occa- 
sioned a  physical  and  moral  decline.  But  while  Spain 
was  constantly  losing  power  and  prestige  in  Europe, 
the  king  was  extending  his  colonial  domain,  lending  royal 
aid  to  the  ambitious  adventurer  and  to  the  ardent  mis- 
sionary friar.  Spain's  object  being  to  christianize  as  well 
as  to  conquer,  the  missionary  became  a  very  important 
figure  hi  the  history  of  every  colonial  enterprise,  and 
these  great  orders  to  whom  missions  were  intrusted  thus 
became  the  central  institutions  in  the  history  of  the 
Philippines. 

The  Rise  of  Monasticism.  —  Monasticism  was  introduced 
into  Europe  from  the  East  at  the  very  commencement  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  fundamental  idea  of  the  old  mo- 
nasticism  was  retirement  from  human  society  in  the  belief 
that  the  world  was  bad  and  could  not  be  bettered,  and 


120  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

that  men  could  lead  holier  lives  and  better  please  God  by 
forsaking  secular  employments  and  family  relations,  and 
devoting  all  their  attention  to  purifying  their  characters. 
The  first  important  order  in  Europe  were  the  Benedictines, 
organized  in  the  sixth  century.  Their  rule  and  organ- 
ization were  the  pattern  for  those  that  followed. 

The  clergy  of  the  church  were  divided  thus  into  two 
groups,  —  first,  the  parish  priests,  or  ministers,  who  lived 
among  the  people  over  whom  they  exercised  the  cure  of 
souls,  and  who,  because  they  were  of  the  people  themselves 
and  lived  their  lives  in  association  with  the  community, 
were  known  as  the  •"  secular  clergy,"  and  second,  the 
monks,  or  "  regular  clergy,"  who  were  so  called  because 
they  lived  under  the  "  rule  "  of  their  order. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century  monasti- 
cism,  which  had  waned  somewhat  during  the  preceding 
two  centuries,  received  a  new  impetus  and  inspiration 
from  the  organization  of  new  orders  known  as  brethren 
or  "  friars."  The  idea  underlying  their  organization  was 
noble,  and  higher  than  that  of  the  old  monasticism ;  for  it 
emphasized  the  idea  of  service,  of  ministry  both  to  the 
hearts  and  bodies  of  depressed  and  suffering  men. 

The  Dominicans.  —  The  Order  of  Dominicans  was  or- 
ganized by  Saint  Dominic,  of  Spain,  about  1215.  The 
primary  object  of  its  members  was  to  defend  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Church  and,  by  teaching  and  preaching, 
destroy  the  doubts  and  protests  which  in  the  thirteenth 
century  were  beginning  to  disturb  -the  claims  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  and  the  Papacy.  The  Dominican  friars  did 
not  live  in  seclusion,  but  traveled  about,  humbly  clad, 
preaching  in  the  villages  and  towns,  and  seeking  to  ex- 
pose and  punish  the  heretic.  The  mediaeval  universities, 
through  their  study  of  philosophy  and  the  Roman  law, 


SPANISH  SOLDIER  AND  MISSIONARY.  121 

were  producing  a  class  of  men  disposed  to  hold  opinions 
contrary  to  the  teachings  of  the  Church.  The  Dominicans 
realized  the  importance  of  these  great  centers  of  instruc- 
tion and  entered  them  as  teachers  and  masters,  and  by 
the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  had  made  them 
strongholds  of  conservatism  and  orthodoxy. 

The  Franciscans.  —  In  the  same  epoch  of  revival, 
the  Order  of  Franciscans  was  founded  by  Saint  Francis 
of  Assisi  in  Italy.  The  aims  of  this  order  were  not  only 
to  preach  and  administer  the  sacraments,  but  to  nurse  the 
sick,  provide  for  the  destitute,  and  alleviate  the  dreadful 
misery  which  affected  whole  classes  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
They  took  vows  of  absolute  poverty,  and  so  humble  was 
the  garb  prescribed  by  their  rule  that  they  went  barefooted 
from  place  to  place. 

The  August inian  Order  was  given  organization  by  Pope 
Alexander  IV.,  in  1256,  and  still  other  orders  followed. 

The  Degeneration  of  the  Orders.  —  Without  doubt  the 
early  ministrations  of  these  friars  were  productive  of  great 
good  both  on  the  religious  and  humanitarian  sides.  But, 
as  the  orders  became  wealthy,  the  friars  lost  their  spiritu- 
ality and  their  lives  grew  vicious.  By  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century  the  administration  of  the  Church 
throughout  Europe  had  become  so  corrupt,  the  economic 
burden  of  the  religious  orders  so  great,  and  religious 
teaching  and  belief  so  material,  that  the  best  and  noblest 
minds  in  all  countries  were  agitating  for  reform. 

The  Reformation.  —  In  addition  to  changes  in  church 
administration,  many  Christians  were  demanding  a  greater 
freedom  of  religious  thinking  and  radical  changes  hi  the 
Church  doctrine  which  had  taken  form  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
Thus,  while  all  the  best  minds  in  the  Church  were  united 
in  seeking  a  reformation  of  character  and  of  admin- 


122  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

istration,  great  differences  arose  between  them  as  to  the 
possibility  of  change  in  Church  doctrines.  These  differ- 
ences accordingly  separated  them  into  two  parties;  the 
Papal  party  adhered  strongly  to  the  doctrine  as  it  was  then 
accepted,  while  various  leaders  in  the  north  of  Europe, 
including  Martin  Luther  hi  Germany,  Swingli  in  Switzer- 
land, and  John  Calvin  in  France  and  Geneva,  broke  with 
the  authority  of  the  Pope  and  declared  for  a  liberation  of 
the  individual  conscience. 

Upon  the  side  of  the  Papacy,  the  Emperor  Charles  the 
Fifth  threw  the  weight  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  and  to 
enforce  the  Papal  authority  he  attacked  the  German 
princes  by  force  of  arms.  The  result  was  a  great  revolt 
from  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  which  spread  all  over 
northern  Germany,  a  large  portion  of  Switzerland,  the 
lowlands  of  the  Rhine,  and  England,  and  which  included  a 
numerous  and  very  influential  element  among  the  French 
people.  These  countries,  with  the  exception  of  France,  have 
remained  Protestant  to  the  present  day;  and  the  great 
expansion  of  the  English  people  in  America  and  the  East 
has  established  Protestantism  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Effects  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  —  The  reform  movement,  which  lasted  through 
the  century,  brought  about  a  great  improvement  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  Many,  who  remained  devoted  to 
Roman  Catholic  orthodoxy,  were  zealous  for  administra- 
tive reform.  A  great  assembly  of  Churchmen,  the  Council 
of  Trent,  for  years  devoted  itself  to  legislation  to  correct 
abuses.  The  Inquisition  was  revived  and  put  into  force 
against  Protestants,  especially  hi  the  dominions  of  Spain, 
and  the  religious  orders  were  reformed  and  stimulated  to 
new  sacrifices  and  great  undertakings. 

But  greater,  perhaps,  than  any  of  these  agencies  hi  re- 


SPANISH  SOLDIER  AND  MISSIONARY.  123 

establishing  the  power  of  the  Pope  and  reviving  the  life  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  the  organization  of  a  new 
order,  the  "Society  of  Jesus."  The  founder  was  a  Span- 
iard, Ignatius  Loyola.  The  Jesuits  devoted  themselves 
especially  to  education  and  missionary  activity.  Their 
schools  soon  covered  Europe,  while  their  mission  stations 
were  to  be  found  in  both  North  and  South  America,  India, 
the  East  Indies,  China,  and  Japan. 

The  Spanish  Missionary.  —  The  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
having  lost  a  large  part  of  Europe,  thus  strove  to  make  up 
the  loss  by  gaining  converts  in  heathen  lands.  Spain, 
being  the  power  most  rapidly  advancing  her  conquests 
abroad,  was  the  source  of  the  most  tireless  missionary 
effort.  From  the  time  of  Columbus,  every  fleet  that  sailed 
to  gain  plunder  and  lands  for  the  Spanish  kingdom  carried 
bands  of  friars  and  churchmen  to  convert  to  Christianity 
the  heathen  peoples  whom  the  sword  of  the  soldier  should 
reduce  to  obedience. 

"The  Laws  of  the  Indies"  gave  special  power  and  prom- 
inence to  the  priest.  In  these  early  days  of  Spain's  colonial 
empire  many  priests  were  men  of  piety,  learning,  and  un- 
selfish devotion.  Their  efforts  softened  somewhat  the  vio- 
lence and  brutality  that  often  marred  the  Spanish  treatment 
of  the  native,  and  they  became  the  civilizing  agents  among 
the  peoples  whom  the  Spanish  soldiers  had  conquered. 

In  Paraguay,  California,  and  the  Philippines  the  power 
and  importance  of  the  Spanish  missionary  outweighed  that 
of  the  soldier  or  governor  in  the  settlement  of  those  coun- 
tries and  the  control  of  the  native  inhabitants. 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT 
BI  THE  SPANIARDS 

IN  THE 

PHILIPPINES,  1565-1590 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PERIOD  OF  CONQUEST  AND   SETTLEMENT, 
1565-1600. 

Cause  of  Settlement  and  Conquest  of  the  Philippines.  — 
The  previous  Spanish  expeditions  whose  misfortunes  have 
been  narrated,  seemed  to  have  proved  to  the  Court  of 
Spain  that  they  could  not  drive  the  Portuguese  from  the 
Moluccas.  But  to  the  east  of  the  Moluccas  lay  great  un- 
explored archipelagoes,  which  might  lie  within  the  Span- 
.ish  demarcation  and  which  might  yield  spices  and  other 
valuable  articles  of  trade;  and  as  the  Portuguese  had  made 
no  effective  occupation  of  the  Philippines,  the  minds  of 
Spanish  conquerors  turned  to  this  group  also  as  a  coveted 
field  of  conquest,  even  though  it  was  pretty  well  under- 
stood that  they  lay  in  the  latitude  of  the  Moluccas,  and  so 
were  denied  by  treaty  to  Spain. 

In  1559  the  Spanish  king,  Felipe  II.,  commanded  the 
viceroy  of  Mexico  to  undertake  again  the  discovery  of  the 
islands  lying  "toward  the  Moluccas,"  but  the  rights  of 
Portugal  to  islands  within  her  demarcation  were  to  be 
respected.  Five  years  passed  before  ships  and  equipments 
could  be  prepared,  and  during  these  years  the  objects  of 
the  expedition  received  considerable  discussion  and  under- 
went some  change. 

The  king  invited  Andre's  de  Urdaneta,  who  years  before 
had  been  a  captain  in  the  expedition  of  Loaisa,  to  accom- 
pany the  expedition  as  a  guide-  and  director.  Urdaneta, 
after  his  return  from  the  previous  expedition,  had  re- 
nounced military  life  and  had  become  an  Augustinian 
friar.  He  was  known  to  be  a  man  of  wise  judgment, 

125 


126  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

with  good  knowledge  of  cosmography,  and  as  a  missionary 
he  was  able  to  give  to  the  expedition  that  religious  strength 
which  characterized  all  Spanish  undertakings. 

It  was  Urdaneta's  plan  to  colonize,  not  the  Philippines, 
but  New  Guinea;  but  the  Audiencia  of  Mexico,  which  had 
charge  of  fitting  out  the  expedition,  charged  it  in  minute 
instructions  to  reach  and  if  possible  colonize  the  Philip- 
pines, to  trade  for  spices  and  to  discover  the  return  sail- 
ing route  back  across  the  Pacific  to  New  Spain.  The 
natives  of  the  islands  were  to  be  converted  to  Christianity, 
and  missionaries  were  to  accompany  the  expedition.  In 
the  quaint  language  of  Fray  Gaspar  de  San  Augustln, 
there  were  sent  "holy  guides  to  unfurl  and  wave  the 
banners  of  Christ,  even  to  the  remotest  portions  of  the 
islands,  and  to  drive  the  devil  from  the  tyrannical  pos- 
session, which  he  had  held  for  so  many  ages,  usurping  to 
himself  the  adoration  of  those  peoples."  1 

The  Third  Expedition  to  the  Philippines.  —  The  expedi- 
tion sailed  from  the  port  of  Natividad,  Mexico,  November 
21,  1564,  under  the  command  of  Miguel  Lopez  de  Legazpi. 
The  ships  followed  for  a  part  of  the  way  a  course  further 
south  than  was  necessary,  and  touched  at  some  inhabited 
islands  of  Micronesia.  About  the  22d  of  January  they 
reached  the  Ladrones  and  had  some  trouble  with  the 
natives.  They  reached  the  southern  end  of  Samar  about 
February  the  13th.  Possession  of  Samar  was  taken  by 
Legazpi  in  the  name  of  the  king,  and  small  parties  were 
sent  both  north  and  south  to  look  for  villages  of  the  Fil- 
ipinos. 

A  few  days  later  they  rounded  the  southern  part  of 
Samar,  crossed  the  strait  to  the  coast  of  southern  Leyte, 

1  Fray  Gaspar  de  San  Augustm:  Conquistas  de  las  Islas  Filipinos, 
lib.  I.,  c.  13. 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT,    1565-1600.  127 

and  Captain  Martin  de  Goiti  discovered  the  town  of 
Cabalian,  and  on  the  5th  of  March  the  fleet  sailed  to  this 
town.  Provisions  were  scarce  on  the  Spanish  vessels,  and 
great  difficulty  was  experienced  in  getting  food  from  the 
few  natives  met 
hi  boats  or  in  the 
small  settlements 
discovered. 

Legazpi  at  Bo- 
hol. —  About  the 
middle  of  March 
the  fleet  arrived 
at  Bohol,  doubt- 
less the  southern 
or  eastern  shore. 
AYhile  near  here 
Goiti  in  a  small 
boat  captured  a 
Moro  prau  from 
Borneo  and  after 
a  hard  fight 
brought  back  the 
M  o  r  o  s  as  pris- 
oners to  Legazpi. 
There  proved  to 
be  quite  a  trade 

ovlc-finff         hMwPPn  (From  a  painting  by  Lima,  in  the  Malacanan 

palace  at  Manila.) 

the  Moros  from  Borneo  and  the  natives  of  Bohol  and 
Mindanao. 

Here  on  Bohol  they  were  able  to  make  friendly  terms 
with  the  natives,  and  with  Sicatuna,  the  dato  of  Bohol, 
Legazpi  performed  the  ceremony  of  blood  covenant.  The 
Spanish  leader  and  the  Filipino  chief  each  made  a  small 


128 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


cut  in  his  own  arm  or  breast  and  drank  the  blood  of  the 
other.  According  to  Gaspar  de  San  Augustfn,  the  blood  was 
mixed  with  a  little  wine  or  water  and  drunk  from  a  goblet.1 
This  custom  was  the  most  sacred  bond  of  friendship 
among  the  Filipinos,  and  friendship  so  pledged  was  usu- 
ally kept  with  great  fidelity. 

Legazpi  in  Cebu.  —  On  the  27th  of  April,  1565,  Le- 
gazpi's  fleet  reached  Cebu.     Here,  in  this  beautiful  strait 


The  Blood  Compact. 
(Painting  by  Juan  Luna.) 

and  fine  anchoring-ground,  Magellan's  ships  had  lingered 
until  the  death  of  their  leader  forty-four  years  before.  A 
splendid  native  settlement  lined  the  shore,  so  Father 
Chirino  tells  us,  for  a  distance  of  more  than  a  league. 
The  natives  of  Cebu  were  fearful  and  greatly  agitated, 

1  One  of  the  best  paintings  of  the  Filipino  artist  Juan  Luna,  which 
hangs  in  the  Ayuntamiento  in  Manila,  represents  Legazpi  in  the  act  of 
the  "  Pacto  de  Sangre  "  with  this  Filipino  chieftain. 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT,   1565-1600.  ,      129 


and  seemed  determined  to  resist  the  landing  of  the  Span- 
iards. But  at  the  first  discharge  of  the  guns  of  the  ships,  the 
natives  abandoned  the  shore,  and,  setting  fire  to  the  town, 
retreated  into  the  jungles  and  hills.  Without  loss  of  life 
the  Spaniards  landed,  and  occupied  the  harbor  and  town. 

Finding  of  "the 
Holy  Child  of 
Ce~bu."  —  The 
Spanish  soldiers 
found  in  one  of  the 
houses  of  the  na-. 
tives  a  small 
wooden  image  of 
the  Child  Jesus. 
A  similar  image, 
Pigafetta  tells  us, 
he  himself  had 
given  to  a  native 
while  in  the  island 
with  Magellan.  It 
had  been  pre- 
served by  the  na- 
tives and  was  re- 
garded by  them  as 
an  object  of  vener- 
ation. To  the  pious 
Spaniards  the  discovery  of  this  sacred  object  was  hailed 
as  an  event  of  great  good  fortune.  It  was  taken  by  the 
monks,  and  carried  to  a  shrine  especially  erected  for  it. 
It  still  rests  in  the  church  of  the  Augustinians,  an  object 
of  great  devotion. 

Settlement  made  at  Cebu.  —  In  honor  of  this  image 
this  settlement  of  the  Spaniards  in  the  Philippines  later 


The  Holy  Child  (Santo  Nino)  of  Cebu. 


130  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

received  the  name  of  "  City  of  the  Most  Holy  Name  of 
Jesus."  Here  Legazpi  established  a  camp,  and,  by  great 
tact  and  skill,  gradually  won  the  confidence  and  friend- 
ship of  the  inhabitants.  A  formal  peace  was  at  last 
concluded  in  which  the  dato,  Tupas,  recognized  the  sover- 
eignty of  Spain ;  and  the  people  of  Cebu  and  the  Spaniards 
bound  themselves  to  assist  each  other  against  the  enemies 
of  either. 

They  had  some  difficulty  in  understanding  one  another, 
but  the  Spaniards  had  with  them  a  Mohammedan  Malay  of 
Borneo,  called  Cid-Hamal,  who  had  been  taken  from  the 
East  Indies  to  the  Peninsula  and  thence  to  Mexico  and 
Legazpi's  expedition.  The  languages  of  Malaysia  and  the 
Philippines  are  so  closely  related  that  this  man  was  able 
to  interpret.  Almost  immediately,  however,  the  mission- 
aries began  the  study  of  the  native  dialect,  and  Padre 
Chirino  tells  us  that  Friar  Martin  Herrada  made  here  the 
first  Filipino  vocabulary,  and  was  soon  preaching  the 
Gospel  to  the  natives  in  their  own  language. 

Discovery  of  the  Northern  Return  Route  across  the 
Pacific.  —  Before  the  arrival  of  the  expedition  in  the 
Philippines,  the  captain  of  one  of  Legazpi's  ships,  in- 
spired by  ungenerous  ambition  and  the  hopes  of  getting 
a  reward,  outsailed  the  rest  of  the  fleet.  Having  arrived 
first  in  the  islands,  he  started  at  once  upon  the  return 
voyage.  Unlike  preceding  captains  who  had  tried  to 
return  to  New  Spain  by  sailing  eastward  from  the  islands 
against  both  wind  and  ocean  current,  this  captain  sailed 
northward  beyond  the  trades  into  the  more  favorable 
westerly  winds,  and  found  his  way  back  to  America  and 
New  Spain. 

Legazpi's  instructions  required  him  to  dispatch  at  least 
one  vessel  on  the  return  voyage  to  New  Spain  soon  after 


CONQUEST  AND   SETTLEMENT,    1565-1600.  131 

arriving  in  the  Philippines.  Accordingly  on  June  1st  the 
"  San  Pablo  "  set  sail,  carrying  about  two  hundred  men, 
including  Urdaneta  and  another  friar.  This  vessel  also 
followed  the  northern  route  across  the  Pacific,  and  after 
a  voyage  of  great  hardship,  occupying  three  and  a  half 
months,  it  reached  the  coast  of  North  America  at  Califor- 
nia and  followed  it  southward  to  Acapulco. 

The  discovery  made  by  these  captains  of  a  favorable 
route  for  vessels  returning  from  the  islands  to  New  Spain 
safe  from  capture  by  the  Portuguese,  completed  the  plans 
of  the  Spanish  for  the  occupation  of  the  Philippines.  In 
1567  another  vessel  was  dispatched  by  Legazpi  and  made 
this  voyage  successfully. 

The  sailing  of  the  "  San  Pablo  "  left  Legazpi  in  Cebu 
with  a  colony  of  only  one  hundred  and  fifty  Spaniards, 
poorly  provided  with  resources,  to  commence  the  conquest 
of  the  Philippines.  But  he  kept  the  friendship  and  respect 
of  the  natives,  and  in  1566  and  1568  ships  with  reinforce- 
ments arrived  from  Mexico. 

While  Legazpi  was  at  Panay,  in  1570,  there  finally 
arrived  a  ship  which  brought  instructions  from  the  king, 
in  reply  to  Legazpi's  first  reports,  that  the  islands  should 
be  held  and  colonized.  These  orders  appointed  Legazpi 
adelantado  and  governor,  and  allowed  the  assignment  of 
natives  in  encomiendas  to  the  soldiers  who  had  effected 
the  conquest. 

The  further  exploration  of  the  islands  had  meanwhile 
proceeded. 

The  great  difficulty  experienced  by  Legazpi  was  to  pro- 
cure sufficient  food  for  his  expedition.  At  different  times 
he  sent  a  ship  to  the  nearest  islands,  and  twice  his  ship 
went  south  to  Mindanao  to  procure  a  cargo  of  cinnamon 
to  be  sent  back  to  New  Spain. 


132  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Meanwhile,  a  captain,  Enriquez  de  Guzman,  had  dis- 
covered Masbate,  Burias,  and  Ticao,  and  had  landed  on 
Luzon  in  the  neighborhood  of  Albay,  called  then  "  Italon." 

Thus  month  by  month  the  Spaniards  gained  acquaint- 
ance with  the  beautiful  island  sea  of  the  archipelago,  with 
its  green  islands  and  brilliant  sheets  of  water,  its  safe 
harbors  and  scattered  settlements. 

While  Legazpi's  resources  were  weakest,  he  was  attacked 
and  blockaded  at  Cebu  by  a  Portuguese  fleet  which  sought 
to  prevent  the  Spanish  occupation.  Both  to  strengthen 
his  position  and  to  secure  better  supplies,  Legazpi  moved 
his  camp  in  1569  to  the  island  of  Panay.  The  Bisayan 
tribes  tattooed  their  bodies  with  ornamental  designs,  a 
practice  widespread  throughout  Oceanica,  and  which  still 
is  common  among  the  tribes  of  northern  Luzon.  This 
practice  caused  the  Spaniards  to  give  to  the  Bisayas  the 
title  of  "  Islas  de  los  Pintados  "  (the  Islands  of  the  Painted). 

Legazpi  found  that  the  island  of  Mindoro  had  been  par- 
tially settled  by  Moros  from  the  south,  and  many  of  these 
settlements  were  devoted  to  piracy,  preying  especially 
upon  the  towns  on  the  north  coast  of  Panay.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1570,  Legazpi  dispatched  his  grandson,  Juan  de 
Salcedo,  to  punish  these  marauders.1 

Capture  of  Pirate  Strongholds.  — Salcedo  had  a  force 
of  forty  Spaniards  and  a  large  number  of  Bisayas.  He 
landed  on  the  western  coast  of  Mindoro  and  took  the 
pirate  town  of  Mamburao.  The  main  stronghold  of  the 
Moros  he  found  to  be  on  the  small  island  of  Lubang,  north- 
west of  Mindoro,  Here  they  had  three  strong  forts  with 
high  walls,  on  which  were  mounted  small  brass  cannon, 

1  There  is  an  old  account  of  this  interesting  expedition  by  one 
who  participated.  (Relation  de  la  Conquista  de  la  Isla  de  Luzon, 
Manila,  1572;  Retana,  Archivo  del  BMiofilo  Filipino,  vol.  IV.) 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT,   1565-1600. 


133 


or  "  lantakas."  Two  of  these  forts  were  surrounded  by 
moats.  There  were  several  days  of  fighting  before  Lu- 
bang  was  conquered.  The  possession  of  Lubang  brought 
the  Spaniards  almost  to  the  entrance  of  Manila  Bay. 
Conquest  of  the  Moro  City  of  Manila.  —  Expedition 
from  Panay.  —  Reports  had  already  come  to  Legazpi  of 
an  important  Mohammedan  settlement  named  "  May- 
nila/'  on  the  shore  of  a  great  bay,  and  a  Mohammedan 
chieftain,  called  Maomat,  was  procured  to  guide  the 
Spaniards  on  their  conquest  of  this  region.1  For  this  pur- 


straits  of  Manila. 

(From  an  old  Dutch  chart.    See  page  193.) 

pose  Legazpi  sent  his  field-marshal,  Martin  de  Goiti,  with 
Salcedo,  one  hundred  and  twenty  Spanish  soldiers,  and 
fourteen  or  fifteen  boats  filled  with  Bisayan  allies.  They  left 
Panay  early  in  May,  and,  after  stopping  at  Mindoro,  came 
to  anchor  in  Manila  Bay,  off  the  mouth  of  the  Pasig  River. 
The  Mohammedan  City.  — On  the  south  bank  of  the 
river  was  the  fortified  town  of  the  Mohammedan  chief- 
tain, Raja  Soliman;  on  the  north  bank  was  the  town  of 
Tondo,  under  the  Raja  Alcandora,  or  Lacandola.  Morga2 
tells  us  that  these  Mohamme'dan  settlers  from  the  island 


1  Morga:  Sucesos  de  las  Islas  Filipinos,  2d  ed.,  p.  10. 

2  Sucesos  de  las  Islas  Filipinos,  p.  316. 


1.  Artilterg  and  Naval 


3,  Audiencia  or  Court 
i.AKlitar!,  Hospital 
5.Umt:ersily  of  Ht.Thomat 
o.Ayuntamiento  or  Palace 
7.  Archbishop'*  Palace 
S.Intendencia 
9.C 

0.  College  of  Santa  Potertoia 
19.  Oh 


SCALE  OF  FEET 


6        280       «o       e5o       800      idoo 


*     THE  CITY  O?1 

MANILA 

(  Adapted  from  Buzeta  Dicotonarlo 
de  Iffi  fslas  FlltploraJ 


134 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT,   1565-1600.        135 

of  Borneo  had  commenced  to  arrive  on  the  island  only  a 
few  years  before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards.  They  had 
settled  and  married  among  the  Filipino  population  already 
occupying  Manila  Bay,  and  had  introduced  some  of  the 
forms  and  practices  of  the  Mohammedan  religion.  The 
city  of  Manila  was  defended  by  a  fort,  apparently  on  the 
exact  site  of  the  present  fort  of  Santiago.  It  was  built 
of  the  trunks  of  palms,  and  had  embrasures  where  were 
mounted  a  considerable  number  of  cannon,  or  lantakas. 

Capture  of  the  City.  —  The  natives  received  the  for- 
eigners at  first  with  a  show  of  friendliness,  but  after  they 
had  landed  on  the  banks  of  the  Pasig,  Soliman,  with 
a  large  force,  assaulted  them.  The  impetuous  Spaniards 
charged,  and  carried  the  fortifications,  and  the  natives 
fled,  setting  fire  to  their  settlement.  When  the  fight  was 
over  the  Spaniards  found  among  the  dead  the  body  of 
a  Portuguese  artillerist,  who  had  directed  the  defense. 
Doubtless  he  was  one  who  had  deserted  from  the  Portu- 
guese garrisons  far  south  in  the  Indian  archipelago  to  cast 
in  his  fortunes  with  the  Malays.  It  being  the  commence- 
ment of  the  season  of  rains  and  typhoons,  the  Spaniards 
decided  to  defer  the  occupation  of  Manila,  and,  after  ex- 
ploring Cavite  harbor,  they  returned  to  Panay. 

A  year  was  spent  in  strengthening  their  hold  on  the 
Bisayas  and  in  arranging  for  their  conquest  of  Luzon. 
On  Masbate  were  placed  a  friar  and  six  soldiers,  so  small 
was  the  number  that  could  be  spared. 

Founding  of  the  Spanish  City  of  Manila.  —  With  a  force 
of  230  men  Legazpi  returned  in  the  spring  of  1571  to  the 
conquest  of  Luzon.  It  was  a  bloodless  victory.  The 
Filipino  rajas  declared  themselves  vassals  of  the  Spanish 
king,  and  in  the  months  of  May  and  June  the  Spaniards 
established  themselves  in  the  present  site  of  the  city. 


136  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

At  once  Legazpi  gave  orders  for  the  reconstruction  of 
the  fort,  the  building  of  quarters,  a  convent  for  the  Au- 
gustinian  monks,  a  church,  and  150  houses.  The  bounda- 
ries of  this  city  followed  closely  the  outlines  of  the  Tagalog 
city  "  Maynila,"  and  it  seems  probable  that  the  location 
of  buildings  then  established  has  been  adhered  to  until 
the  present  time.  This  settlement  appeared  so  desirable 
to  Legazpi  that  he  at  once  designated  it  as  the  capital  of 
the  archipelago.  Almost  immediately  he  organized  its 
municipal  government,  or  ayuntamiento. 

The  First  Battle  on  Manila  Bay.  —  In  spite  of  their 
ready  submission,  the  rajas,  Soliman  and  Lacandola,  did 
not  yield  their  sovereignty  without  a  struggle.  They  were 
able  to  secure  assistance  in  the  Tagalog  and  Pampango 
settlements  of  Macabebe  and  Hagonoy.  A  great  fleet  of 
forty  war-praus  gathered  in  palm-lined  estuaries  on  the 
north  shore  of  Manila  Bay,  and  came  sweeping  down  the 
shallow  coast  to  drive  the  Spaniards  from  the  island. 
Against  them  were  sent  Goiti  and  fifty  men.  The  protect- 
ive mail  armor,  the  heavy  swords  and  lances,  the  horrible 
firearms,  coupled  with  the  persistent  courage  and  fierce 
resolution  of  the  Spanish  soldier  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
swept  back  this  native  armament.  The  chieftain  Soliman 
was  killed. 

The  Conquest  of  Central  Luzon.  —  Goiti  continued  his 
marching  and  conquering  northward  until  the  southern 
end  of  the  plain  of  central  Luzon,  that  stretches  from 
Manila  Bay  to  the  Gulf  of  Lingayen,  lay  submissive  before 
him.  A  little  later  the  raja  Lacandola  died,  having 
accepted  Christian  baptism,  and  the  only  powerful  resist- 
ance on  the  island  of  Luzon  was  ended. 

Goiti  was  sent  back  to  the  Bisayas,  and  the  command 
of  the  army  of  Luzon  fell  to  Salcedo,  the  brilliant  and 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT,   1565-1600.        137 

daring  grandson  of  Legazpi,  at  this  time  only  twenty-two 
years  of  age.  This  young  knight  led  his  command  up  the 
Pasig  River.  Cainta  and  Taytay,  at  that  time  impor- 
tant Tagalog  towns,  were  conquered,  and  then  the  coun- 
try south  of  Laguna  de  Bay.  The  town  of  Cainta  was 
fortified  and  defended  by  small  cannon,  and  although 
Salcedo  spent  three  days  hi  negotiations,  it  was  only 
taken  by  storm,  in  which  four  hundred  Filipino  men  and 
women  perished.1  From  here  Salcedo  marched  over  the 
mountains  to  the  Pacific  coast  and  south  into  the  Cam- 
arines,  where  he  discovered  the  gold  mines  of  Paracale  and 
Mambulao. 

At  about  this  time  the  Spaniards  discovered  the  Cuyos 
and  Calamianes  islands  and  the  northern  part  of  Palawan. 

Exploration  of  the  Coast  of  Northern  Luzon.  —  In  1572, 
Salcedo,  with  a  force  of  only  forty-five  men,  sailed  north- 
ward from  Manila,  landed  in  Zambales  and  Pangasinan, 
and  on  the  long  and  rich  Ilokos  coast  effected  a  permanent 
submission  of  the  inhabitants.  He  also  visited  the  coast 
farther  north,  where  the  great  and  fertile  valley  of  the 
Cagayan,  the  largest  river  of  the  archipelago,  reaches  to 
the  sea.  From  here  he  continued  his  adventurous  journey 
down  the  Pacific  coast  of  Luzon  to  the  island  of  Polillo, 
and  returned  by  way  of  Laguna  de  Bay  to  Manila. 

Death  of  Legazpi.  —  He  arrived  in  September,  1572,  to 
find  that  his  grandfather  and  commander,  Legazpi,  had 
died  a  month  before  (August  20,  1572).  After  seven 
years  of  labor  the  conqueror  of  difficulties  was  dead,  but 
almost  the  entire  archipelago  had  been  added  to  the  crown 
of  Spain.  Three  hundred  years  of  Spanish  dominion  se- 
cured little  more  territory  than  that  traversed  and  pacified 


1  Conquista  de  la  Isla  de  Luzon,  p.  24. 


138 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


by  the  conquerors  of  these  early  years.  In  spite  of  their 
slender  forces,  the  daring  of  the  Spaniards  induced  them 
to  follow  a  policy  of  widely  extending  their  power,  effect- 
ing settlements,  and  enforcing  submission  wherever  rich 
coasts  and  the  gathering  of  population  attracted  them. 

Within  a  single  year's 
time  most  of  the  coast 
country  of  Luzon  had 
been  traversed,  import- 
ant positions  seized,  and 
the  inhabitants  por- 
tioned out  in  encomien- 
das.  On  the  death  of 
Legazpi,  the  command 
fell  to  Guido  de  Labe- 
zares. 

Reasons  for  this  Easy 
Conquest  of  the  Philip- 
pines. —  The  explana- 
tion of  how  so  small  a 
number  of  Europeans 
could  so  rapidly  and  suc- 
cessfully reduce  to  sub- 
jection the  inhabitants 
of  a  territory  like  thePhil- 
ippines,  separated  into 
so  many  different  islands,  is  to  be  found  in  several  things. 
First.  —  The  expedition  had  a  great  leader,  one  of  those 
knights  combining  sagacity  with  resolution,  who  glorify 
the  brief  period  when  Spanish  prestige  was  highest.  No 
policy  could  ever  be  successful  in  the  Philippines  which 
did  not  depend  for  its  strength  upon  giving  a  measure  of 
satisfaction  to  the  Filipino  people.  Legazpi  did  this.  He 


Legazpi  Monument,  Luneta. 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT,   1565-1600.        139 

appears  to  have  won  the  native  datos,  treating  them  with 
consideration,  and  holding  out  to  them  the  expectations 
of  a  better  and  more  prosperous  era,  which  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Spaniard  would  bring.  Almost  from  the  beginning, 
the  natives  of  an  island  already  reduced  flocked  to  his 
standard  to  assist  in  the  conquest  of  another.  The  small 
forces  of  the  Spanish  soldiers  were  augmented  by  hun- 
dreds of  Filipino  allies. 

Second.  —  Another  reason  is  found  in  the  wonderful 
courage  and  great  fighting  power  of  the  Spanish  soldier. 
Each  man,  splendidly  armored  and  weaponed,  deadly  with 
either  sword  or  spear,  carrying  in  addition  the  arquebus, 
the  most  efficient  firearm  of  the  time,  was  equal  in  combat 
to  many  natives  who  might  press  upon  him  with  their 
naked  bodies  and  inferior  weapons. 

Third.  —  Legazpi  was  extremely  fortunate  in  his  cap- 
tains, who  included  such  old  campaigners  as  the  field- 
marshal  Martin  de  Goiti,  who  had  been  to  the  Philippines 
before  with  Villalobos,  and  such  gallant  youths  as  Salcedo, 
one  of  the  most  attractive  military  figures  in  all  Spanish 
history. 

Fourth.  —  In  considering  this  Spanish  conquest,  we 
must  understand  that  the  islands  were  far  more  sparsely 
inhabited  than  they  are  to-day.  The  Bisayan  islands, 
the  rich  Camarines,  the  island  of  Luzon,  had,  in  Legazpi's 
time,  only  a  small  fraction  of  their  present  great  popula- 
tions. This  population  was  not  only  small,  but  it  was  also 
extremely  disunited.  Not  only  were  the  great  tribes  sep- 
arated by  the  differences  of  language,  but,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  each  tiny  community  was  practically  inde- 
pendent, and  the  power  of  a  dato  very  limited.  There 
were  no  great  princes,  with  large  forces  of  fighting  re- 
tainers whom  they  could  call  to  arms,  such  as  the  Portu- 


140  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

guese  had  encountered  among  the  Malays  south  in  the 
Eastern  Archipelago. 

Fifth.  —  But  certainly  one  of  the  greatest  factors  in  the 
yielding  of  the  Filipino  to  the  Spaniard  was  the  preaching 

xof  the  missionary  friars.  No  man  is  so  strong  with  an 
unenlightened  and  barbarous  race  as  he  who  claims  power 

.  from  God.  And  the  preaching  of  the  Catholic  faith,  with 
its  impressive  and  dramatic  services,  its  holy  sacraments, 
its  power  to  arrest  the  attention  and  to  admit  at  once 
the  rude  mind  into  the  circle  of  its  ministry,  won  the 
heart  of  the  Filipino.  Without  doubt  he  was  ready  and 
eager  for  a  loftier  and  truer  religious  belief  and  ceremo- 
nial. There  was  no  powerful  native  priesthood  to  oppose 
the  introduction  of  Christianity.  The  preaching  of  the 
faith  and  the  baptism  of  converts  proceeded  as  rapidly 
as  the  missionaries  could  be  obtained. 

The  Dangers  of  the  Spanish  Occupation.  —  Such  condi- 
tions promised  the  success  of  the  Spanish  occupation,  pro- 
vided the  small  colony  could  be  protected  from  outside 
attacks.  But  even  from  the  beginning  the  position  of 
this  little  band  of  conquerors  was  perilous.  Their  numbers 
were  small  and  at  times  much  scattered,  and  their  only 
source  of  succor  lay  thousands  of  miles  away,  across  the 
greatest  body  of  water  on  the  earth,  in  a  land  itself  a 
colony  newly  wrested  from  the  hand  of  the  savage.  Across 
the  narrow  waters  of  the  China  Sea,  only  a  few  days' 
distant,  even  in  the  slow-sailing  junks,  lay  the  teeming 
shores  of  the  most  populous  country  in  the  world,  in  those 
days  not  averse  to  foreign  conquest. 

Attempt  of  the  Chinese  under  Limahong  to  Capture 
Manila.  —  Activity  of  the  Southern  Chinese.  —  It  was 
from  the  Chinese  that  the  first  heavy  blow  fell.  The 
southeastern  coast  of  China,  comprising  the  provinces  of 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT,  1565-1600.       141 

Kwangtung  and  Fukien,  has  always  exhibited  a  restless- 
ness and  passion  for  emigration  not  displayed  by  other 
parts  of  the  country.  From  these  two  provinces,  through 
the  ports  of  Amoy  and  Canton,  have  gone  those  Chinese 
traders  and  coolies  to  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  East 
and  many  other  countries  of  the  world.  Three  hundred 
years  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  Chinese  junks 
traversed  the  Philippine  seas  and  visited  regularly  Luzon 
and  the  coast  of  Mindanao. 

Limahong's  Expedition  to  the  Philippines. —  This 
coast  of  China  has  always  been  notorious  for  its  piracy. 
The  distance  of  the  capital  at  Peking  and  the  weakness  of 
the  provincial  viceroys  have  made  impossible  its  suppres- 
sion. It  was  one  of  these  bold  filibusters  of  the  China  Sea, 
called  Limahong,  who  two  years  after  the  death  of  Legazpi 
attempted  the  conquest  of  the  Philippines.  The  strong- 
hold of  this  corsair  was  the  island  of  Pehon,  where  he 
fortified  himself  and  developed  his  power. 

Here,  reports  of  the  prosperous  condition  of  Manila 
reached  him,  and  he  prepared  a  fleet  of  sixty-two  war- 
junks,  with  four  thousand  soldiers  and  sailors.  The  ac- 
counts even  state  that  a  large  number  of  women  and 
artisans  were  taken  on  board  to  form  the  nucleus  of  the 
settlement,  as  soon  as  the  Spaniards  should  be  destroyed. 
In  the  latter  part  of  November,  1574,  this  powerful  fleet 
came  sweeping  down  the  western  coast  of  Luzon  and  on 
the  29th  gathered  in  the  little  harbor  of  Mariveles,  at  the 
entrance  to  Manila  Bay.  Eight  miles  south  of  Manila  is 
the  town  of  Paranaque,  on  an  estuary  which  affords  a 
good  landing-place  for  boats  entering  from  the  bay.  Here 
on  the  night  following,  Limahong  put  ashore  six  hundred 
men,  under  one  of  his  generals,  Sioco,  who  was  a  Japanese. 

The  Attack  upon  Manila.  —  From  here  they  marched 


142  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

rapidly  up  the  beach  and  fell  furiously  upon  the  city. 
Almost  their  first  victim  was  the  field-marshal  Goiti.  The 
fort  of  Manila  was  at  this  date  a  weak  affair,  without 
ditches  or  escarpment,  and  it  was  here  that  the  struggle 
took  place.  The  Spaniards,  although  greatly  outnum- 
bered, were  able  to  drive  back  the  Chinese;  but  they 
themselves  lost  heavily.  Limahong  then  sent  ashore  heavy 
reinforcements,  and  prepared  to  overwhelm  the  garrison. 
The  Spaniards  were  saved  from  defeat  by  the  timely  ar- 
rival of  Salcedo  with  fifty  musketeers.  From  his  station 
at  Bigan  he  had  seen  the  sails  of  Limahong's  fleet,  cruising 
southward  along  the  Luzon  coast,  and,  suspecting  that  so 
great  an  expedition  could  have  no  other  purpose  than  the 
capture  of  Manila,  he  embarked  in  seven  small  boats,  and 
reached  the  city  in  six  days,  just  in  time  to  participate  in 
the  furious  battle  between  the  Spaniards  and  the  entire 
forces  of  the  Chinese  pirate.  The  result  was  the  complete 
defeat  of  the  Chinese,  who  were  driven  back  upon  their 
boats. 

The  Result  of  Limahong's  Expedition.  —  Although 
defeated  in  his  attack  on  Manila,  Limahong  was  yet  de- 
termined on  a  settlement  in  Luzon,  and,  sailing  northward, 
he  landed  in  Pangasinan  and  began  constructing  fortifi- 
cations at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Lingayen.  The  Span- 
iards did  not  wait  for  him  to  strengthen  himself  and  to  dis- 
pute with  them  afresh  for  the  possession  of  the  island,  but 
organized  in  March  an  expedition  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
Spaniards  and  fifteen  hundred  Filipinos  under  Salcedo. 
They  landed  suddenly  in  the  Gulf  of  Lingayen,  burned 
the  entire  fleet  of  the  Chinese,  attacked  the  camp  of  the 
pirates,  and  killed  a  number  of  them.  The  rest,  though 
hemmed  in  by  the  Spaniards,  were  able  to  construct  small 
boats,  in  which  they  escaped  from  the  islands. 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT,  1565-1600.        143 

Thus  ended  this  formidable  attack,  which  threatened 
for  a  time  to  overthrow  the  power  of  Spain  hi  the  East. 
It  was  the  beginning,  however,  of  important  relations 
with  China.  Before  Limahong's  escape  a  junk  arrived 
from  the  viceroy  of  Fukien,  petitioning  for  the  delivery  of 
the  Chinese  pirate.  Two  Augustinian  friars  accompanied 
his  junk  back  to  China,  eager  for  such  great  fields  of 
missionary  conquest.  They  carried  letters  from  Labezares 
inviting  Chinese  friendship  and  intercourse. 

Beginning  of  a  New  Period  of  Conquest.  —  In  the  spring 
of  1576,  Salcedo  died  at  Bigan,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
seven.  With  his  death  may  be  said  to  close  the  first 
period  of  the  history  in  the  Philippines,  —  that  of  the 
Conquest,  extending  from  1565  to  1576.  For  the  next 
twenty-five  years  the  ambitions  of  the  Spaniards  were  not 
content  with  the  exploration  of  this  archipelago,  but  there 
were  greater  and  more  striking  conquests,  to  which  the 
minds  of  both  soldier  and  priest  aspired. 

Despite  the  settlement  with  Portugal,  the  rich  Spice 
Islands  to  the  south  still  attracted  them,  and  there 
were  soon  revealed  the  fertile  coasts  of  Siam  and 
Cambodia,  the  great  empire  of  China,  the  beautiful 
island  of  Formosa,  and  the  Japanese  archipelago.  These, 
with  their  great  populations  and  wealth,  were  more  allur- 
ing fields  than  the  poor  and  sparsely  populated  coasts 
of  the  Philippines.  So,  for  the  next  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury, the  policy  of  the  Spaniards  in  the  Philippines  was 
not  so  much  to  develop  these  islands  themselves,  as  to 
make  them  a  center  for  the  commercial  and  spiritual 
conquest  of  the  Orient.1 


1  See  the  letter  of  Bishop  Salazar  to  the  king,  explaining  his  mo- 
tives in  coming  to  the  Philippines.  Retana,  Biblioteca  Filipino,  vol. 
III.,  Carta- Relation  de  las  Cosas  de  China,  p.  4. 


144  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

A  Treaty  with  the  Chinese.  —  The  new  governor  arrived 
in  the  Islands  in  August,  1575.  He  was  Dr.  Francisco 
de  Sande.  In  October  there  returned  the  ambassadors 
who  had  been  sent  to  China  by  Labezares.  The  viceroy 
of  Fukien  had  received  them  with  much  ceremony.  He 
had  not  permitted  the  friars  to  remain,  but  had  forwarded 
the  governor's  letter  to  the  Chinese  emperor.  In  Febru- 
ary following  came  a  Chinese  embassy,  granting  a  port  of 
the  empire  with  which  the  Spaniards  could  trade.  This 
port,  probably,  was  Amoy,  which  continued  to  be  the 
chief  port  of  communication  with  China  to  the  present 
day. 

It  was  undoubtedly  commerce  and  not  the  mission- 
aries that  the  Chinese  desired.  Two  Augustinians  at- 
tempted to  return  with  this  embassy  to  China,  but  the 
Chinese  on  leaving  the  harbor  of  Manila  landed  on  the 
coast  of  Zambales,  where  they  whipped  the  missionaries, 
killed  their  servants  and  interpreter,  and  left  the  friars 
bound  to  trees,  whence  they  were  rescued  by  a  small 
party  of  Spaniards  who  happened  to  pass  that  way. 

Sir  Francis  Drake's  Noted  Voyage.  —  The  year  1577  is 
notable  for  the  appearance  in  the  East  of  the  great  Eng- 
lish sea-captain,  freebooter,  and  naval  hero,  Francis  Drake. 
England  and  Spain,  at  this  moment,  while  not  actually  at 
war,  were  rapidly  approaching  the  conflict  which  made 
them  for  centuries  traditional  enemies.  Spain  was  the 
champion  of  Roman  ecclesiasticism.  Her  king,  Philip  the 
Second,  was  not  only  a  cruel  bigot,  but  a  politician  of 
sweeping  ambition.  His  schemes  included  the  conquest 
of  France  and  England,  the  extermination  of  Protestant- 
ism, and  the  subjection  of  Europe  to  his  own  and  the 
Roman  authority. 

The  English  people  scented  the  danger  from  afar,  and 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT,  1565-1600.        145 

while  the  two  courts  nominally  maintained  peace,  the  dar- 
ing seamen  of  British  Devon  were  quietly  putting  to  sea 
in  their  swift  and  terrible  vessels,  for  the  'crippling  of 
the  Spanish  power.  The  history  of  naval  warfare  records 
no  more  reckless  adventures  than  those  of  the  English 
mariners  during  this  period.  Audacity  could  not  rise 
higher. 

Drake's  is  the  most  famous  and  romantic  figure  of 
them  all.  In  the  year  1577,  he  sailed  from  England 
with  the  avowed  purpose  of  sweeping  the  Spanish  Main. 
He  passed  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and  came  up  the 
western  coast  of  South  America,  despoiling  the  Spanish 
shipping  from  Valparaiso  to  Panama.  Thence  he  came 
on  across  the  Pacific,  touched  the  coast  of  Mindanao,  and 
turned  south  to  the  Moluccas. 

The  Portuguese  had  nominally  annexed  the  Moluccas 
in  1522,  but  at  the  time  of  Drake's  visit  they  had  been 
driven  from  Ternate,  though  still  holding  Tidor.  Drake 
entered  into  friendly  relations  with  the  sultan  of  Ternate, 
and  secured  a  cargo  of  cloves.  From  here  he  sailed  boldly 
homeward,  daring  the  Portuguese  fleets,  as  he  had  defied 
the  Spanish,  and  by  way  of  Good  Hope  returned  to 
England,  his  ship  the  first  after  Magellan's  to  circum- 
navigate the  globe. 

A  Spanish  Expedition  to  Borneo.  —  The  appearance  of 
Drake  in  the  Moluccas  roused  Sande  to  ambitious  action. 
The  attraction  of  the  southern  archipelagoes  was  over- 
powering, and  at  this  moment  the  opportunity  seemed 
to  open  to  the  governor  to  force  southward  his  power. 
One  of  the  Malay  kings  of  Borneo,  Sirela,  arrived  in  Ma- 
nila, petitioning  aid  against  his  brother,  and  promising  to 
acknowledge  the  sovereignty  of  the  king  of  Spain  over  the 
kingdom  of  Borneo.  Sande  went  in  person  to  restore 


146  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

this  chieftain  to  power.  He  had  a  fleet  of  galleys  and 
frigates,  and,  according  to  Padre  Caspar  de  San  Augustin, 
more  than  fifteen  hundred  Filipino  bowmen  from  Pangasi- 
nan,  Cagayan,  and  the  Bisayas  accompanied  the  expedition. 
He  landed  on  the  coast  of  Borneo,  destroyed  the  fleet  of 
praus  and  the  city  of  the  usurper,  and  endeavored  to  se- 
cure Sirela  in  his  principality.  Sickness  among  his  fleet 
and  the  lack  of  provisions  forced  him  to  return  to  Manila. 

The  First  Attack  upon  the  Moros  of  Jolo.  —  On  his  re- 
turn he  sent  an  officer  against  the  island  of  Jolo.  This 
officer  forced  the  Joloanos  to  recognize  his  power,  and 
from  there  he  passed  to  the  island  of  Mindanao,  where  he 
further  enforced  obedience  upon  the  natives.  This  was 
the  beginning  of  the  Spanish  expeditions  against  the  Mo- 
ros, and  it  had  the  effect  of  arousing  in  these  Moham- 
medan pirates  terrible  retaliatory  vengeance.  Under 
Sande  the  conquest  of  the  Camarines  was  completed  by 
Captain  Juan  Chaves  and  the  city  of  Nueva  Cdceres 
was  founded. 

The  Appointment  of  Governor  Ronquillo.  —  It  was  the 
uniform  policy  of  the  Spanish  government  to  limit  the 
term  of  office  of  the  governor  to  a  short  period  of  years. 
This  was  one  of  the  futile  provisions  by  which  Spain  at- 
tempted to  control  both  the  ambition  and  the  avarice  of 
her  colonial  captains.  But  Don  Gonzalo  Ronquillo  had 
granted  to  him  the  governorship  of  the  Philippines  for 
life,  on  the  condition  of  his  raising  and  equipping  a  force 
of  six  hundred  Spaniards,  largely  at  his  own  expense,  for 
the  better  protection  and  pacification  of  the  archipelago. 
This  Ronquillo  did,  bringing  his  expedition  by  way  of 
Panama.  He  arrived  in  April,  1580,  and  although  he 
died  at  the  end  of  three  years,  his  rule  came  at  an  impor- 
tant time. 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT,   1565-1600:        147 

The  Spanish  and  the  Portuguese  Colonies  Combined.  — 
In  1580,  Philip  II.  conquered  and  annexed  to  Spain  the 
kingdom  of  Portugal,  and  with  Portugal  came  necessarily 
to  the  Spanish  crown  those  rich  eastern  colonies  which 
the  valor  of  Da  Gama  and  Albuquerque  had  won.  Portu- 
gal re  won  her  independence  in  1640,  but  for  years  Manila 
was  the  center  of  a  colonial  empire,  extending  from  Goa 
in  India  to  Formosa. 

Events  of  Ronquillo's  Rule.  —  Ronquillo,  under  orders 
from  the  crown,  entered  into  correspondence  with  the 
captain  of  the  Portuguese  fortress  on  the  island  of  Tidor, 
and  the  captain  of  Tidor  petitioned  Ronquillo  for  assist- 
ance in  reconquering  the  tempting  island  of  Ternate. 
Ronquillo  sent  south  a  considerable  expedition,  but  after 
arriving  in  the  Moluccas  the  disease  of  beri-beri  in  the 
Spanish  camp  defeated  the  undertaking.  Ronquillo  also 
sent  a  small  armada  to  the  coasts  of  Borneo  and  Malacca, 
where  a  limited  amount  of  pepper  was  obtained. 

The  few  years  of  Ronquillo's  reign  were  in  other  ways 
important.  A  colony  of  Spaniards  was  established  at 
Oton,  on  the  island  of  Panay,  near  the  site  of  the  present 
city  of  Iloilo.  And  under  Ronquillo  was  pacified  for  the 
first  time  the  great  valley  of  the  Cagayan.  At  the  mouth 
of  the  river  a  Japanese  adventurer,  Tayfusa,  or  Tayzufu, 
had  established  himself  and  was  attempting  the  subjuga- 
tion of  this  important  part  of  northern  Luzon.  Ronquillo 
sent  against  him  Captain  Carreon,  who  expelled  the 
intruder  and  established  on  the  present  site  of  Lallok 
the  city  of  Nueva  Segovia.  Two  friars  accompanied  this 
expedition  and  the  occupation  of  this  valley  by  the  Span- 
iards was  made  permanent. 

The  First  Conflicts  between  the  Church  and  the  State.  — 
In  March,  1581,  there  arrived  the  first  Bishop  of  Manila, 


148 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


Domingo  de  Salazar.     Almost  immediately  began  those 

conflicts  between  the  spiritual  and  civil 

authorities,  and  between  bishop  and  the 

regular  orders,   which  have   filled   to   no 

small  degree  the  history  of  the  islands.  The 

bishop  was    one   of   those   authoritative, 

ambitious,    and   arrogant    characters,    so 

typical  in  the  history  of  the  Church.     It 

was  largely  due  to  his  protests  against 

the  autocratic  power  of  the  governor  that 

the  king  was  induced  to  appoint  the  first 

Audiencia.     The  character  and  power  of 

these  courts  have  already  been  explained. 

The  president  and  judges  arrived  the  year 

following  the  death  of  Ronquillo,  and  the 

president, 

Dr.    Santi- 

ago deVera, 

became  act- 

ing    gOVer-          More  Spear. 

nor  during  the  succeeding 
five  years. 

In  1587,  the  first  Domini- 
cans, fifteen  in  number,  ar- 
rived, and  founded  their 
celebrated  mission,  La  Pro- 
vincia  del  'Santisimo  Ro- 
sano. 

Increasing  Strength  of  the  Malays.  —  De  Vera  continued 
the  policy  of  his  predecessors  and  another  fruitless  attack 
was  made  on  Ternate  in  1585.  The  power  of  the  Malay 
people  was  increasing,  while  that  of  the  Europeans  was 
decreasing.  The  sultans  had  expelled  their  foreign  masters, 


Moro  Shield. 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT,   1565-1600. 


149 


and  neither  Spaniard  nor  Portuguese  were  able  to  effect 
the  conquest  of  the  Moluccas.  There  were  uprisings  of 
the  natives  in  Manila  and  in  Cagayan  and  Ilokos. 

The  Decree  of  1589.  —  Affairs  in  the  Islands  did  not 
yet,  however,  suit  Bishop  Salazar,  and  as  the  representa- 
tive  of  both  governor  and  bishop,   the  Jesuit,   Alonso 
Sanchez,  was  dispatched  in  1586 
to  lay  the  needs  of  the   colony 
before  the  king.    Philip  was  ap- 
parently    impressed    with    the 
necessity   of    putting   the   gov- 
ernment of   the  Islands  upon  a 
better  adminstrative  basis.     To 
this  end    he  published  the  im- 
portant decree  of  1589. 

The  governor  now  became  a 
paid  officer  of  the  crown,  at  a 
salary  of  ten  thousand  ducats. 
For  the  proper  protection  of 
the  colony  and  the  conquest  of 
the  Moluccas,  a  regular  force 
of  four  hundred  soldiers  ac- 
companied the  governor.  His 
powers  were  extended  to  those  of 
an  actual  viceregent  of  the  king, 
and  the  Audiencia  was  abolished. 
The  man  selected  to  occupy  this  important  post  was  Don 
Gomez  Perez  Dasmarinas,  who  arrived  with  the  new  con- 
stitution in  May,  1590.  So  great  was  the  chagrin  of  the 
bishop  at  the  abolition  of  the  Audiencia  and  the  increase 
of  the  governor's  power,  that  he  himself  set  out  for  Spain 
to  lay  his  wishes  before  the  court. 

The    Missionary   Efforts    of   the    Friars.  —  Twenty-four 


A 


Moro  Shield. 


150  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Franciscans  came  with  Dasmarifias  and  the  presence  now 
of  three  orders  necessitated  the  partition  of  the  Islands 
among  them.  The  keenest  rivalry  and  jealousy  existed 
among  them  over  the  prosecution  of  missions  in  still  more 
foreign  lands.  To  the  missionaries  of  this  age  it  seemed 
a  possible  thing  to  convert  the  great  and  conservative 
nations  of  China  and  Japan  to  the  Western  religion. 

In  the  month  of  Dasmarifias'  arrival,  a  company  of 
Dominicans  attempted  to  f9und  a  mission  in  China,  and, 
an  embassy  coming  from  Japan  to  demand  vassalage  from 
the  Philippines,  four  of  the  newly  arrived  Franciscans  ac- 
co'mpanied  the  Japanese  on  their  return. 

A  year  later,  in  1592,  another  embassy  from  the  king 
of  Cambodia  arrived,  bringing  gifts  that  included  two  ele- 
phants, and  petitioning  for  succor  against  the  king  of  Siam. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  an  alliance  between  Cambodia 
and  the  Philippines  which  lasted  for  many  years,  and 
which  occasioned  frequent  military  aid  and  many  efforts 
to  convert  that  country. 

Death  of  Dasmarifias.  —  But  the  center  of  Dasmarifias' 
ambitions  was  the  effective  conquest  of  the  East  Indies 
and  the  extension  of  Spanish  power  and  his  own  rule 
through  the  Moluccas.  With  this  end  in  view,  for  three 
years  he  made  preparations.  For  months  the  shores  were 
lined  with  the  yards  of  the  shipbuilders,  and  the  great 
forests  of  Bulacan  fell  before  the  axes  of  the  Indians. 
More  than  two  hundred  vessels,  "galeras,"  "galeotas," 
and  "virrayes,"  were  built,  and  assembled  at  Cavite. 

In  the  fall  of  1593,  the  expedition,  consisting  of  over 
nine  hundred  Spaniards,  Filipino  bowmen  and  rowers, 
was  ready.  Many  of  the  Filipinos,  procured  to  row  these 
boats,  were  said  to  have  been  slaves,  purchased  through 
the  Indian  chicis  by  the  Spanish  encomenderos.  The 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT,   1565-1600.          151 

governor  sent  forward  this  great  fleet  under  the  command 
of  his  son,  Don  Luis,  and  in  the  month  of  October  he  him- 
self set  sail  in  a  galley  with  Chinese  rowers.  But  on  the 
night  of  the  second  day,  while  off  the  island  of  Marikaban, 
the  Chinese  oarsmen  rose  against  the  Spaniards,  of  whom 
there  were  about  forty  on  the  ship,  and  killed  almost  the 
entire  number,  including  the  governor.  They  then 
escaped  in  the  boat  to  the  Ilokos  coast  and  thence  to 
China.  The  murder  of  this  active  and  illustrious  general 
was  a  decisive  blow  to  the  ambitious  projects  for  the  con- 
quest of  the  East  Indies. 

Among  other  papers  which  Dasmarinas  brought  from 
Spain  was  a  royal  cedula  giving  him  power  to  nominate 
his  successor,  who  proved  to  be  his  son,  Don  Luis,  who 
after  some  difficulty  succeeded  temporarily  to  his  father's 
position. 

Arrival  of  Morga.  —  In  June,  1595,  there  arrived  Don 
Antonio  de  Morga,  who  had  been  appointed  lieutenant- 
governor  with  judicial  powers  in  cases  of  appeal.  With 
Morga  came  several  Jesuit  missionaries.  He  was  also 
the  bearer  of  an  order  granting  to  the  Jesuits  the  exclu- 
sive privilege  of  conducting  missions  in  China  and  Japan. 
The  other  orders  were  forbidden  to  pass  outside  the  Islands. 

An  attempt  to  Colonize  Mindanao.  —  In  the  year  1596, 
the  Captain  Rodriguez  de  Figueroa  received  the  title  of 
governor  of  Mindanao,  with  exclusive  right  to  colonize  the 
island  for  "the  space  of  two  lives."  He  left  Iloilo  in 
April  with  214  Spaniards,  two  Jesuit  priests,  and  many 
natives.  They  landed  in  the  Rio  Grande  of  Mindanao, 
where  the  defiant  dato,  Silonga,  fortified  himself  and  re- 
sisted them.  Almost  immediately  Figueroa  rashly  ven- 
tured on  shore  and  was  killed  by  Moros.  Reinforcements 
were  sent  under  Don  Juan  Ronquillo,  who,  after  nearly 


152  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

bringing  the  datos  to  submission,  abandoned  all  he  had 
gained.  The  Spaniards  burned  their  forts  on  the  Rio 
Grande  and  retired  to  Caldera,  near  Zamboanga,  where 
they  built  a  presidio. 

Death  of  Franciscans  in  Japan.  —  The  new  governor, 
Don  Francisco  Tello  de  Guzman,  arrived  on  June  1,  1596. 
He  had  previously  been  treasurer  of  the  Casa  de  Contrata- 
cion  in  Seville.  Soon  after  his  arrival  an  important  and 
serious  tragedy  occurred  in  Japan.  The  ship  for  Acapulco 
went  ashore  on  the  Japanese  coast  and  its  rich  cargo  was 
seized  by  the  feudal  prince  where  the  vessel  sought  assist- 
ance. The  Franciscans  already  had  missions  in  these 
islands,  and  a  quarrel  existed  between  them  and  the 
Portuguese  Jesuits  over  this  missionary  field.  The  latter 
succeeded  in  prejudicing  the  Japanese  court  against  their 
rivals,  and  when  the  Franciscans  injudiciously  pressed  for 
the  return  of  the  property  of  the  wrecked  galleon,  the 
feudal  ruler,  greedy  for  the  rich  plunder,  and  exasperated 
by  their  preaching,  met  their  petitions  with  the  sentence 
of  death.  They  were  horribly  crucified  at  the  port  of 
Nagasaki,  February  5,  1597.  This  feudal  lord  was  the 
proud  and  mighty  Hideyoshi.  He  was  planning  the 
conquest  of  the  Philippines  themselves,  when  death  ended 
his  plans. 

The  First  Archbishop  in  the  Philippines.  —  Meanwhile 
the  efforts  of  Salazar  at  the  Spanish  court  had  effected 
further  important  changes  for  the  Islands.  The  reestab- 
lishment  of  the  Royal  Audiencia  was  ordered,  and  his  own 
position  was  elevated  to  that  of  archbishop,  with  the 
three  episcopal  -sees  of  Ilokos,  Cebu,  and  the  Camarines. 
He  did  not  live  to  assume  this  office,  and  the  first  arch- 
bishop of  the  Philippines  was  Ignacio  Santibanez,  who  also 
died  three  months  after  his  arrival,  on  May  28,  1598. 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT,  1565-1600.          153 

Reestablishment  of  the  Audiencia.  —  The  Audiencia  was 
reestablished  with  great  pomp  and  ceremony.  The  royal 
seal  was  borne  on  a  magnificently  caparisoned  horse  to  the 
cathedral,  where  a  Te  Deum  was  chanted,  and  then  to 
the  Casas  Reales,  where  was  inaugurated  the  famous  court 
that  continued  without  interruption  down  to  the  end  of 
Spanish  rule.  Dr.  Morga  was  one  of  the  first  oidores,  and 
the  earliest  judicial  record  which  can  now  be  found  in  the 
archives  of  this  court  is  a  sentence  bearing  his  signature. 

The  Rise  of  Moro  Piracy.  —  The  last  years  of  De  Guz- 
man's governorship  were  filled  with  troubles  ominous  for 
the  future  of  the  Islands.  The  presidio  of  Caldera  was 
destroyed  by  the  Moros.  Following  this  victory,  in  the 
year  1599,  the  Moros  of  Jolo  and  Magindanao  equipped 
a  piratical  fleet  of  fifty  caracoas,  and  swept  the  coasts  of 
the  Bisayas.  Cebu,  Negros,  and  Panay  were  ravaged, 
their  towns  burned,  and  their  inhabitants  carried  off  as 
slaves. 

The  following  year  saw  the  return  of  a  larger  and  still 
more  dreadful  expedition.  The  people  of  Panay  aban- 
doned their  towns  and  fled  into  the  mountains,  under  the 
belief  that  these  terrible  attacks  had  been  inspired  by  the 
Spaniards.  To  check  these  pirates,  Juan  Gallinato,  with 
a  force  of  two  hundred  Spaniards,  was  sent  against  Jolo, 
but,  like  so  many  expeditions  that  followed  his,  he  ac- 
complished nothing.  The  inability  of  the  Spaniards 
was  now  revealed  and  the  era  of  Moro  piracy  had  be- 
gun. "From  this  time  until  the  present  day"  (about 
the  year  1800),  wrote  Zuiiiga,  "these  Moros  have  not 
ceased  to  infest  our  colonies;  innumerable  are  the  Indians 
they  have  captured,  the  towns  they  have  looted,  the 
rancherias  they  have  destroyed,  the  vessels  they  have 
taken.  It  seems  as  if  God  has  preserved  them  for 


154 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


vengeance  on  the  Spaniards  that  they  have  not  been 
able  to  subject  them  in  two  hundred  years,  in  spite 
of  the  expeditions  sent  against  them,  the  armaments 
sent  almost  very  year  to  pursue  them.  In  a  very 
little  while  we  conquered  all  the  islands  of  the  Philip- 
pines; but  the  little  island  of  Jolo,  a  part  of  Mindanao, 


Moro  "Vinta." 

and  other  islands  near  by  we  have  not  been  able  to 
subjugate  to  this   day."  * 

Battle  at  Mariveles  with  the  Dutch.  —  In  October,  1600, 
two  Dutch  vessels  appeared  in  the  Islands;  it  was  the 
famous  expedition  of  the  Dutch  admiral,  Van  Noort. 
They  had  come  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  on  a  voy- 
age around  the  world.  The  Dutch  were  in  great  need  of 
provisions.  As  they  were  in  their  great  enemy's  colony, 
they  captured  and  sunk  several  boats,  Spanish  and  Chi- 

1  Zuniga:  Historia  de  Filipinas,  pp.  195,  196. 


CONQUEST  AND  SETTLEMENT,   1565-1600.         155 

nese,  bound  for  Manila  with  rice,  poultry,  palm-wine,  and 
other  stores  of  food.  At  Mariveles,  a  Japanese  vessel 
from  Japan  was  overhauled.  Meanwhile  in  Manila  great 
excitement  and  activity  prevailed.  The  Spaniards  fitted 
up  two  galleons  and  the  Oidor  Morga  himself  took  com- 
mand with  a  large  crew  of  fighting  men. 

On  December  14,  they  attacked  the  Dutch,  whose 
crews  had  been  reduced  to  no  more  than  eighty  men  on 
both  ships.  The  vessel  commanded  by  Morga  ran  down 
the  flagship  of  Van  Noort,  and  for  hours  the  ships  lay 
side  by  side  while  a  hand-to-hand  fight  raged  on  the  deck 
and  in  the  hold.  The  ships  taking  fire,  Morga  disengaged 
his  ship,  which  was  so  badly  shattered  that  it  sank,  with 
great  loss  of  life;  but  Morga  and  some  others  reached  the 
little  island  of  Fortuna.  Van  Noort  was  able  to  extin- 
guish the  fire  on  his  vessel,  and  escape  from  the  Islands. 
He  eventually  reached  Holland.  His  smaller  vessel  was 
captured  with  its  crew  of  thirteen  men  and  six  boys.  The 
men  were  hanged  at  Cavite.1 

Other  Troubles  of  the  Spanish.  —  In  the  year  1600,  two 
ships  sailed  for  Acapulco,  but  one  went  down  off  the 
Catanduanes  and  the  other  was  shipwrecked  on  the  La- 
drones.  "  On  top  of  all  other  misfortunes,  Manila  suffered, 
in  the  last  months  of  this  government,  a  terrible  earth- 
quake, which  destroyed  many  houses  and  the  church  of 
the  Jesuits."  2 

The  Moros,  the  Dutch,  anxieties  and  losses  by  sea,  the  visi- 
tations of  God, — how  much  of  the  history  of  the  seventeenth 
century  in  the  Philippines  is  filled  with  these  four  things ! 


1  Both  Van  Noort  and  Morga  have  left  us  accounts  of  this  sea-fight,  the 
former  in  his  journal,  Description  of  the  Failsome  Voyage  Made  Round 
the  World,  and  the  latter  in  his  famous,  Sucesos  de  las  Islas  Filipinas. 

2  Montero  y  Vidal:  Historia  de  Filipinas,  vol.  I.,  p.  199. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE   PHILIPPINES  THREE  HUNDRED 
YEARS  AGO. 

Condition  of  the  Archipelago  at  the  Beginning  of  the 
Seventeenth  Century.  —  The  Spanish  Rule  Completely 
Established.- —  At  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  the 
Spaniards  had  been  in  possession  of  the  Philippines  for  a 
generation.  In  these  thirty-five  years  the  most  striking 
of  all  the  results  of  the  long  period  of  Spanish  occupation 
were  accomplished.  The  work  of  these  first  soldiers  and 
missionaries  established  the  limits  and  character  of  Span- 
ish rule  as  it  was  to  remain  for  250  years.  Into  this  first 
third  of  a  century  the  Spaniard  crowded  all  his  early 
feats  of  arms  and  exploration.  Thereafter,  down  to  1850, 
few  new  fields  were  explored,  but  all  through  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  missionaries  were  Christianizing  the 
conquered  peoples. 

The  survey  of  the  archipelago  given  by  Morga  soon  after 
1600  reads  like  a  narrative  of  approximately  modern 
conditions.  It  reveals  to  us  how  great  had  been  the 
activities  of  the  early  Spaniard  and  how  small  the  achieve- 
ments of  his  countrymen  after  the  seventeenth  century 
began.  All  of  the  large  islands,  except  Palawan  and  the 
Moro  country,  were,  in  that  day,  under  encomiendas,  their 
inhabitants  paying  tributes  and  for  the  most  part  ready 
to  embrace  the  Catholic  faith. 

The  smaller  groups  and  islets  were  almost  as  thor- 
oughly exploited.  Even  of  the  little  Catanduanes,  lying 
off  the  Pacific  coast  of  Luzon,  Morga  could  say,  "  They 
are  well  populated  with  natives,  —  a  good  race,  all  en- 

156 


THREE  HUNDRED  YEARS  AGO.         157 

comiencfas  of  Spaniards,  with  doctrine  and  churches,  and 
an  alcalde-mayor,  who  does  justice  among  them." 

The  Babuyanes  at  the  north  of  the  archipelago  were  an 
exception.  "  They  are  not  encomended,  nor  is  tribute 
collected  among  them,  nor  are  there  Spaniards  among 
them,  because  they  are  of  little  reason  and  politeness,  and 
there  have  neither  been  Christians  made  among  them  nor 
have  they  justices."  In  1591,  however,  the  Babuyanes 
had  been  given  in  encomienda  to  Esteban  de  la  Serna  and 
Francisco  Castillo.  They  are  put  as  having  two  thou- 
sand inhabitants  and  five  hundred  "  tributantes,"  but  all 
unsubdued  ("todos  algados"). 

On  some  islands  the  hold  of  the  Spaniards  was  more 
extensive  in  Morga's  day  than  at  a  later  time.  Then  the 
island  of  Mindoro  was  regarded  as  important,  and  in  the 
early  years  and  decades  of  Spanish  power  appears  to  have 
been  populous  along  the  coasts.  Later  it  was  desolated 
by  the  Moro  pirates  and  long  remained  wild  and  almost 
uninhabited  except  by  a  shifting  population  from  the 
mainland  of  Luzon,  and  of  pirates  from  Sulu. 

The  Encomiendas.  —  As  we  have  already  seen,  one  of 
the  vessels  that  followed  the  expedition  of  Legazpi  brought 
orders  from  the  king  that  the  Islands  should  be  divided 
in  encomiendas  among  those  who  had  conquered  and  won 
them.1  On  this  instruction,  Legazpi  had  given  the  Fili- 
pinos in  encomienda  to  his  captains  and  soldiers  as  fast 
as  the  conquest  proceeded. 

We  are  fortunate  to  have  a  review  of  these  encomien- 
das, made  in  1591,  about  twenty  years  after  the  system 
was  introduced  into  the  Islands.2  There  were  then  267 

1  Relation  de  la  Conquista  de  Luzon,  1572,  p.  15. 

2  Relacidn   de   las   Encomiendas,    existentes   en   Filipinos,    Retana. 
Archive  del  Bibliofilo  Filipino,  vol.  IV. 


160  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

encomiendas  in  the  Philippines,  of  which  thirty-one  were 
of  the  king,  and  the  remainder  of  private  persons. 

Population  under  the  Encomiendas-  —  From  the  enu- 
meration of  these  encomiendas,  we  learn  that  the  most 
populous  parts  of  the  archipelago  were  La  Laguna,  with 
24,000  tributantes  and  97,000  inhabitants,  and  the  Cam- 
arines,  which  included  all  the  Bikol  territory,  and  the 
Catanduanes,  where  there  were  21,670  tributantes  and  a 
population  of  over  86,000;  the  vicinity  of  Manila  and 
Tondo,  which  included  Cavite  and  Marigondon,  the  south 
shore  of  the  bay,  and  Pasig  and  Taguig,  where  were  col- 
lected 9,410  tributes,  from  a  population  estimated  at 
about  30,000.  Iri  Ilokos  were  reported  17,130  tributes 
and  78,520  souls. 

The  entire  valley  of  the  Cagayan  had  been  divided 
among  the  soldiers  of  the  command  which  had  effected  the 
conquest.  In  the  list  of  encomiendas  a  few  can  be  recog- 
nized, such  as  Yguig  and  Tuguegarao,  but  most  of  the 
names  are  not  to  be  found  on  maps  of  to-day.  Most  of 
the  inhabitants  were  reported  to  be  "  rebellious  "  (algados) 
and  some  were  apparently  the  same  wild  tribes  which 
still  occupy  all  of  this  water-shed,  except  the  very  banks 
of  the  river;  but  none  the  less  had  the  Spaniards  divided 
them  off  into  "  repartimentos."  One  soldier  had  even 
taken  as  an  encomienda  the  inhabitants  of  the  upper 
waters  of  the  river,  a  region  which  is  called  in  the  Relation 
11  Pugao,"  with  little  doubt  the  habitat  of  the  same  Igo- 
rot  tribe  as  the  Ipugao,  who  still  dwell  in  these  moun- 
tains. The  upper  valley  of  the  Magat,  or  Nueva  Vizcaya, 
had  not  at  this  date  been  occupied  and  probably  was  not 
until  the  missions  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  population  among  the  Bisayan  islands  was  .quite 
surprisingly  small,  considering  its  present  proportions. 


THREE  HUNDRED  YEARS  AGO.  161 

Masbate,  for  example,  had  but  1,600  souls;  Burias,  a  like 
number;  the  whole  central  group,  leaving  out  Panay,  only 
15,833  tributes,  or  about  35,000  souls.  There  was  a  single 
encomienda  in  Butuan,  Mindanao,  and  another  on  the 
Caraga  coast.  There  were  a  thousand  tributes  collected 
in  the  encomienda  of  Cuyo,  and  fifteen  hundred  in  Cala- 
mianes,  which,  says  the  Relation,  included  "  los  negrillos," 
probably  the  mixed  Negrito  population  of  northern  Pala- 
wan. 

The  entire  population  under  encomiendas  is  set  down  as 
166,903  tributes,  or  667,612  souls.  This  Relacidn  is  one 
of  the  earliest  enumerations  of  the  population  of  the 
Philippines.  Barring  the  Igorots  of  northern  Luzon 
and  the  Moros  and  other  tribes  of  Mindanao,  it  is  a  fair 
estimate  of  the  number  of  the  Filipino  people  three  hun- 
dred years  ago. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  numbers  assigned  to  single 
encomenderos  in  the  Philippines  were  large.  In  America 
the  number  was  limited.  As  early  as  1512,  King  Ferdi- 
nand had  forbidden  any  single  person,  of  whatever  rank 
or  grade,  to  hold  more  than  three  hundred  Indians  on  one 
island.1  But  in  the  Philippines,  a  thousand  or  twelve 
hundred  "  tributantes "  were  frequently  held  by  a  single 
Spaniard. 

Condition  of  t7ie  Filipinos  under  the  Encomiendas. — 
Frequent  Revolts. — That  the  Filipinos  on  many  of  these 
islands  bitterly  resented  their  condition  is  evidenced  by 
the  frequent  uprisings  and  rebellions.  The  encomenderos 
were  often  extortionate  and  cruel,  and  absolutely  heedless 
of  the  restrictions  and  obligations  imposed  upon  them  by 
the  Laws  of  the  Indies.  Occasionally  a  new  governor, 

1  Ordenanzas  .  .  .  para  la  Repartition  de  los  Indios  de  la  Isla  Es- 
panola,  in  Documentos  Ineditos,  vol.  I.,  p.  236. 


162  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

under  the  first  impulse  of  instructions  from  Mexico  or 
Spain,  did  something  to  correct  abuses.  Revolts  were 
almost  continuous  during  the  year  1583,  and  the  condition 
of  the  natives  very  bad,  many  encomenderos  regarding 
them  and  treating  them  almost  as  slaves,  and  keeping 
them  at  labor  to  the  destruction  of  their  own  crops  and 
the  misery  of  their  families.  Gov.  Santiago  de  Vera 
reached  the  Islands  the  following  year  and  made  a  charac- 
teristic attempt  to  improve  the  system,  which  is  thus 
related  by  Zufiiga:  — 

"  As  soon  as  he  had  taken  possession  of  the  government, 
he  studied  to  put  into  effect  the  orders  which  he  brought 
from  the  king,  to  punish  certain  encomenderos,  who  had 
abused  the  favor  they  had  received  in  being  given  en- 
comiendas,  whereby  he  deposed  Bartolome  de  Ledesma, 
encomendero  of  Abuyo  (Leyte),  and  others  of  those  most 
culpable,  and  punished  the  others  in  proportion  to  the 
offenses  which  they  had  committed,  and  which  had  been 
proven. 

"  In  the  following  year  of  1585,  he  sent  Juan  de  Morones 
and  Pablo  de  Lima,  with  a  well  equipped  squadron,  to 
the  Moluccas,  which  adventure  was  as  unfortunate  as 
those  that  had  preceded  it,  and  they  returned  to  Manila 
without  having  been  able  to  take  the  fortress  of  Ternate. 
The  governor  felt  it  very  deeply  that  the  expedition  had 
failed,  and  wished  to  send  another  armada  in  accordance 
with  the  orders  which  the  king  had  given  him;  but  he 
could  not  execute  this  because  the  troops  from  New  Spain 
did  not  arrive,  and  because  of  the  Indians,  who  lost  no 
occasion  which  presented  itself  to  shake  off  the  yoke  of 
the  Spaniards. 

"  The  Pampangos  and  many  inhabitants  of  Manila  con- 
federated with  the  Moros  of  .Borneo,  who  had  come  for 


THREE  HUNDRED   YEARS  AGO.  163 

trade,  and  plotted  to  enter  the  city  by  night,  set  it  on 
fire,  and,  in  the  confusion  of  the  conflagration,  slay  all 
the  Spaniards.  This  conspiracy  was  discovered  through 
an  Indian  woman,  who  was  married  to  a  Spanish  soldier, 
and  measures  to  meet  the  conspiracy  were  taken,  before 
the  mine  exploded,  many  being  seized  and  suffering  ex- 
emplary punishment. 

"  The  islands  of  Samar,  Ybabao,  and  Leyte  were  also  hi 
disturbance,  and  the  encomendero  of  Dagami,  pueblo  of 
Leyte,  was  in  peril  of  losing  his  life,  because  the  Indians 
were  incensed  by  his  thievings  in  the  collection  of  tribute, 
which  was  paid  in  wax,  and  which  he  compelled  them  to 
have  weighed  with  a  steelyard  which  he  had  made  double 
the  legal  amount,  and  wanted  to  kill  him.  They  would 
have  done  so  if  he  had  not  escaped  into  tKe  mountains 
and  afterwards  passed  by  a  banka  to  the  island  of  Cebu. 
The  governor  sent  Captain  Lorenzo  de  la  Mota  to  pacify 
these  disturbances;  he  made  some  punishments,  and  with 
these  everything  quieted  down." 

Three  years  later,  however,  the  natives  of  Leyte  were 
again  in  revolt.  In  1589  Cagayan  rose  and  killed  many 
Spaniards.  The  revolt  seems  to  have  spread  from  here  to 
the  town  of  Dingras,  Ilokos,  where  the  natives  rose  against 
the  collectors  of  tribute,  and  slew  six  Spaniards  of  the 
pueblo  of  Fernandina.2 

Effects  of  the  Spanish  Government.  — The  Spanish  oc- 
cupation had  brought  ruin  and  misery  to  some  parts  of 


1  Historia  de  Filipinos,  p.  157,  et  sq. 

2  Among  other  documents,  which  throw  a  most  unfavorable  light 
upon  the  condition  of  the  Filipinos  under  the  encomiendas,  is  a  letter 
to  the  king  from  Domingo  de  Salazar,  the  first  bishop  of  the  Philip- 
pines, which  describes  the  conditions  about  1583.     (Zuniga,  Historia  de 
Filipinos,  p.  165.) 


164  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  country.  Salazar  describes  with  bitterness  the  evil 
condition  of  the  Filipinos.  In  the  rich  fields  of  Bulacan 
and  Pampanga,  great  gangs  of  laborers  had  been  im- 
pressed, felling  the  forests  for  the  construction  of  the 
Spanish  fleets  and  manning  these  fleets  at  the  oars,  on 
voyages  which  took  them  for  four  and  six  months  from 
their  homes.  The  governor,  Don  Gonzalo  Ronquillo,  had 
forced  many  Indians  of  Pampanga  into  the  mines  of 
Ilokos,  taking  them  from  the  sowing  of  their  rice.  Many 
had  died  in  the  mines  and  the  rest  returned  so  enfeebled 
that  they  could  not  plant.  Hunger  and  famine  had  de- 
scended upon  Pampanga,  and  on  the  encomienda  of  Guido 
de  Labezares  over  a  thousand  had  died  from  starvation.1 

The  Tribute.  —  The  tribute  was  a  source  of  abuse. 
Theoretically,  the  tax  upon  Indians  was  limited  to  the 
"  tribute,"  the  sum  of  eight  reales  (about  one  dollar) 
yearly  from  the  heads  of  all  families,  payable  either  in 
gold  or  in  produce  of  the  district.  But  in  fixing  the 
prices  of  these  commodities  there  was  much  extortion,  the 
encomenderos  delaying  the  collection  of  the  tribute  until 
the  season  of  scarcity,  when  prices  were  high,  but  insist- 
ing then  on  the  same  amount  as  at  harvest-time. 

The  principal,  who  occupied  the  place  of  the  former 
dato,  or  "  maharlika,"  like  the  gobernadorcillo  of  recent 
times,  was  responsible  for  the  collecting  of  the  tribute,  and 
his  lot  seems  to  have  been  a  hard  one.  "  If  they  do  not 
give  as  much  as  they  ask,  or  do  not  pay  for  as  many 
Indians  as  they  say  there  are,  they  abuse  the  poor  prin- 
cipal, or  throw  him  into  the  pillory  (cepo  de  cabeza), 
because  all  the  encomenderos,  when  they  go  to  make  col- 
lections, take  their  pillories  with  them,  and  there  they  keep 

1  Domingo  de  Salazar,  Relation  de  las  Cosas  de  las  Filipinas,  1583, 
p.  5,  in  Retana,  Archivo,  vol.  III. 


THREE  HUNDRED  YEARS  AGO.  165 

him  and  torment  him,  until  forced  to  give  all  they  ask. 
They  are  even  said  to  take  the  wife  and  daughter  of  the 
principal,  when  he  can  not  be  found.  Many  are  the  prin- 
cipales  who  have  died  under  these  torments,  according  to 
reports." 

Salazar  further  states  that  he  has  known  natives  to  be 
sold  into  slavery,  in  default  of  tribute.  Neither  did  they 
impose  upon  adults  alone,  but  "  they  collect  tribute  from 
infants,  the  aged  and  the  slaves,  and  many  do  not  marry 
because  of  the  tribute,  and  others  slay  their  children."  x 

Scarcity  of  Food.  —  Salazar  further  charges  that  the 
alcaldes  mayores  (the  alcaldes  of  provinces),  sixteen  in 
number,  were  all  corrupt,  and,  though  their  salaries  were 
small,  they  accumulated  fortunes.  For  further  enumera- 
tion of  economic  ills,  Salazar  details  how  prices  had  evilly 
increased.  In  the  first  years  of  Spanish  occupation,  food 
was  abundant.  There  was  no  lack  of  rice,  beans,  chickens, 
pigs,  venison,  buffalo,  fish,  cocoanuts,  bananas,  and  other 
fruits,  wine  and  honey;  and  a  little  money  bought  much. 
A  hundred  gantas  (about  three  hundred  liters)  of  rice 
could  then  be  bought  for  a  toston  (a  Portuguese  coin, 
worth  about  a  half-peso),  eight  to  sixteen  fowls  for  a  like 
amount,  a  fat  pig  for  from  four  to  six  reales.  In  the 
year  of  his  writing  (about  1583),  products  were  scarce 
and  prices  exorbitant.  Rice  had  doubled,  chickens  were 
worth  a  real,  a  good  pig  six  to  eight  pesos.  Population 
had  decreased,  and  whole  towns  were  deserted,  their  in- 
habitants having  fled  into  the  hills. 

General  Improvement  under  Spanish  Rule.  —  This  is  one 
side  of  the  picture.  It  probably  is  overdrawn  by  the 
bishop,  who  wras  jealous  of  the  civil  authority  and  who 
began  the  first  of  those  continuous  clashes  between  the 

1  Relacidn,  pp.  13,  14. 


166  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

church  -  and  political  power  in  the  Philippines.  Doubt- 
less if  we  could  see  the  whole  character  of  Spanish  rule 
in  these  decades,  we  should  see  that  the  actual  condition 
of  the  Filipino  had  improved  and  his  grade  of  culture 
had  risen.  No  one  can  estimate  the  actual  good  that 
comes  to  a  people  in  being  brought  under  the  power  of  a 
government  able  to  maintain  peace  and  dispense  justice. 
Taxation  is  sometimes  grievous,  corruption  without  ex- 
cuse; but  almost  anything  is  better  than  anarchy. 

Before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  it  seems  unques- 
tionable that  the  Filipinos  suffered  greatly  under  two  ter- 
rible grievances  that  inflict  barbarous  society,  —  in  the  first 
place,  warfare,  with  its  murder,  pillage,  and  destruction, 
not  merely  between  tribe  and  tribe,  but  between  town 
and  town,  such  as  even  now  prevails  in  the  wild 
mountains  of  northern  Luzon,  among  the  primitive  Ma- 
layan tribes;  and  in  the  second  place,  the  weak  and  poor 
man  was  at  the  mercy  of  the  strong  and  rich. 

The  establishment  of  Spanish  sovereignty  had  certainly 
mitigated,  if  it  did  not  wholly  remedy,  these  conditions. 
"  All  of  these  provinces,"  Morga  could  write,  "  are  pacified 
and  are  governed  from  Manila,  having  alcaldes  mayores, 
corregidors,  and  lieutenants,  each  one  of  whom  governs  in 
his  district  or  province  and  dispenses  justice.  The  chief- 
tains (principales),  who  formerly  held  the  other  natives  in 
subjection,  no  longer  have  power  over  them  in  the  manner 
which  they  tyrannically  employed,  which  is  not  the  least 
benefit  these  natives  have  received  in  escaping  from  such 
slavery."  1 

Old  Social  Order  of  the  Filipinos  but  Little  Disturbed.  — 
Some  governors  seem  to  have  done  their  utmost  to  im- 
prove the  condition  of  the  people  and  to  govern  them 

1  Siicesos  de  las  Filipinas,  p.  334. 


THREE  HUNDRED  YEARS  AGO.  167 

well.  Santiago  de  Vera,  as  we  have  seen,  even  went  so 
far  as  to  commission  the  worthy  priest,  Padre  Juan 
de  Plasencia,  to  investigate  the  customs  and  social  organ- 
ization of  the  Filipinos,  and  to  prepare  an  account  of 
their  laws,  that  they  might  be  more  suitably  governed. 
This  brief  code  —  for  so  it  is  —  was  distributed  to 
alcaldes,  judges,  and  encomenderos,  with  orders  to  pat- 
tern their  decisions  in  accordance  with  Filipino  custom.1 

In  ordering  local  affairs,  the  Spaniards  to  some  extent 
left  the  old  social  order  of  the  Filipinos  undisturbed. 
The  several  social  classes  were  gradually  suppressed,  and 
at  the  head  of  each  barrio,  or  small  settlement,  was 
appointed  a  head,  or  cabeza  de  barangay.  As  these 
barangayes  were  grouped  into  pueblos,  or  towns,  the 
former  datos  were  appointed  captains  and  goberna- 
dorcillos. 

The  Payment  of  Tribute.  —  The  tribute  was  introduced 
in  1570.2  It  was  supposed  to  be  eight  reales  or  a  peso  of 
silver  for  each  family.  Children  under  sixteen  and  adults 
over  sixty  were  exempt.  In  1590  the  amount  was  raised 
to  ten  reales.  To  this  was  added  a  real  for  the  church, 
known  as  "  sanctorum,"  and,  on  the  organization  of  the 
towns,  a  real  for  the  caja  de  communidad  or  municipal 
treasury.  Under  the  encomiendas  the  tribute  was  paid 
to  the  encomenderos,  except  on  the  royal  encomiendas; 
but  after  several  generations,  as  the  encomiendas  decreased 
in  number,  these  collections  went  directly  to  the  insular 
treasury.  There  was  later,  besides  the  tribute,  a  com- 
pulsory service  of  labor  on  roads,  bridges,  and  public 


1  Las  Costumbres  de  los  Tagdloes  en  Filipinos  segun  el  Padre  Pla- 
sencia.    Madrid,  1892. 

2  Blumentritt:    Organization  Communale  des  Indigines  des  Philip- 
pines, Iraduis  de  I'AUemand,  par  A.  Hugot.     1881. 


168  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

works,  known  as  the  "  corvee,"  a  feudal  term,  or  perhaps 
more  generally  as  the  "  polos  y  servicios."  Those  dis- 
charging this  enforced  labor  were  called  "  polistas." 

Conversion  of  the  Filipinos  to  Christianity. — The  popu- 
lation was  being  very  rapidly  Christianized.  All  accounts 
agree  that  almost  no  difficulty  was  encountered  in  baptiz- 
ing the  more  advanced  tribes.  "  There  is  not  in  these 
islands  a  province,"  says  Morga,  "  which  resists  conver- 
sion and  does  not  desire  it."  l  Indeed,  the  Islands  seem 
to  have  been  ripe  for  the  preaching  of  a  higher  faith, 
either  Christian  or  Mohammedan.  For  a  time  these  two 
great  religions  struggled  together  in  the  vicinity  of  Ma- 
nila,2 but  at  the  end  of  three'  decades  Spanish  power 
and  religion  were  alike  established.  Conversion  was 
delayed  ordinarily  only  by  the  lack  of  sufficient  numbers 
of  priests.  We  have  seen  that  this  conversion  of  the 
people  was  the  work  of  the  missionary  friars.  In  1591 
there  were  140  in  the  Islands,  but  the  Relation  de  las  Enco- 
miendas  calls  for  160  more  to  properly  supply  the  peoples 
which  had  been  laid  under  tribute. 

Coming  of  the  Missionaries.  —  The  Augustinians  had 
been  the  pioneer  order,  a  few  accompanying  Legazpi.  The 
first  company  of  Franciscans  arrived  in  1577.  The  first 
Jesuits,  padres  Antonio  Sedefio  and  Alonzo  Sanchez,  had 
come  with  the  bishop  of  the  Islands,  Domingo  de  Salazar, 
in  1581.  They  came  apparently  without  resources.  Even 
their  garments  brought  from  Mexico  had  rotted  on  the 
voyage.  They  found  a  little,  poor,  narrow  house  in  a 
suburb  of  Manila,  called  Laguio  (probably  Concepcion). 
"So  poorly  furnished  was  it,"  says  Chirino,  "that  the 
same  chest  which  held  their  books  was  the  table  on  which 


1  Sucesos  de  las  Filipinas,  p.  332. 
*  See  Salazar's  relation  on  this  point. 


THREE  HUNDRED  YEARS  AGO.        169 

they  ate.  Their  food  for  many  days  was  rice,  cooked  in 
water,  without  salt  or  oil  or  fish  or  meat  or  even  an  egg, 
or  anything  else  except  that  sometimes  as  a  regalo  they 
enjoyed  some  salt  sardines."  1  Dominicans  came  in  1587, 
and  finally  in  1606  the  Recollects,  or  unshod  Augustinians. 
Before  the  end  of  the  century  there  were  over  four  hundred. 

Division  of  the  Archipelago  among  the  Religious  Orders. 
—  The  archipelago  was  districted  among  these  mission- 
ary bands.  The  Augustinians  had  many  parishes  in  the 
Bisayas,  on  the  Ilokano  coast,  some  in  Pangasinan,  and  all 
of  those  in  Pampanga.  The  Dominicans  had  parts  of 
Pangasinan  and  all  of  the  valley  of  Cagayan.  The  Fran- 
ciscans controlled  the  Camarines  and  nearly  all  of  southern 
Luzon,  and  the  region  of  Laguna  de  Bay.  All  of  these 
orders  had  convents  and  monasteries  both  in  the  city  of 
Manila  and  in  the  country  round  about.  The  imposing 
churches  of  brick  and  stone,  which  now  characterize  nearly 
every  pueblo,  had  not  in  those  early  decades  been  erected; 
but  Morga  tells  us  that  "the  churches  and  monasteries 
were  of  wood,  and  well  built,  with  furniture  and  beautiful 
ornaments,  complete  service,  crosses,  candlesticks,  and 
chalices  of  silver  and  gold."  2 

The  First  Schools.  —  Even  in  these  early  years  there 
seem  to  have  been  some  attempts  at  the  education  of  the 
natives.  The  friars  had  schools  in  reading  and  writing 
for  boys,  who  were  also  taught  to  serve  in  the  church,  to 
sing,  to  play  the  organ,  the  harp,  guitar,  and  other  instru- 
ments. We  must  remember,  however,  that  the  Filipino 
before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniard  had  a  written  language, 
and  even  in  pre-Spanish  times  there  must  have  been  in- 
struction given  to  the  child.  The  type  of  humble  school, 


1  Chirino:  Relacidn,  pp.  19,  20. 
*  Morga,  p.  329. 


170  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

that  is  found  to-day  in  remote  barrios,  conducted  by  an 
old  man  or  woman,  on  the  floor  or  in  the  yard  of  a  home, 
where  the  ordinary  family  occupations  are  proceeding, 
probably  does  not  owe  its  origin  to  the  Spaniards,  but 
dates  from  a  period  before  their  arrival.  The  higher  edu- 
cation established  by  the  Spaniards  appears  to  have  been 
exclusively  for  the  children  of  Spaniards.  In  1601  the 
Jesuits,  pioneers  of  the  Roman  Catholic  orders  in  educa- 
tion, established  the  College  of  San  Jose. 

Establishment  of  Hospitals.  —  The  city  early  had  nota- 
ble foundations  of  charity.  The  high  mortality  which 
visited  the  Spaniards  in  these  islands  and  the  frequency 
of  diseases  early  called  for  the  establishment  of  institu- 
tions for  the  orphan  and  the  invalid.  In  Morga's  time 
there  were  the  orphanages  of  San  Andres  and  Santa 
Potenciana.  There  was  the  Royal  Hospital,  in  charge  of 
three  Franciscans,  which  burned  in  the  conflagration  of 
1603,  but  was  reconstructed.  There  was  also  a  Hospital 
of  Mercy,  in  charge  of  Sisters  of  Charity  from  Lisbon  and 
the  Portuguese  possessions  of  India. 

Close  by  the  Monastery  of  Saint  Francis  stood  then, 
where  it  stands  to-day,  the  hospital  for  natives,  San  Juan 
de  Dios.  It  was  of  royal  patronage,  but  founded  by  a 
friar  of  the  Franciscan  order,  Juan  Clemente.  "Here," 
says  Morga,  "  are  cured  a  great  number  of  natives  of  all 
kinds  of  sicknesses,  with  much  charity  and  care.  It  has 
a  good  house  and  offices  of  stone,  and  is  administered  by 
the  barefooted  religious  of  Saint  Francis.  Three  priests 
are  there  and  four  lay-brethren  of  exemplary  life,  who, 
with  the  doctors,  surgeons,  and  apothecaries,  are  so  dex- 
terous and  skilled  that  they  work  with  their  hands  mar- 
velous cures,  both  in  medicine  and  surgery."  1 

1  Sucesos  de  las  Filipians,  p.  323. 


THREE  HUNDRED   YEARS  AGO.  171 

Mortality  among  the  Spaniards.  —  Mortality  in  the  Phil* 
ippines  in  these  years  of  conquest  was  frightfully  high. 
The  waste  of  life  in  her  colonial  adventures,  indeed,  drained 
Spain  of  her  best  and  most  vigorous  manhood.  In  the 
famous  old  English  collection  of  voyages,  published  by 
Hakluyt  in  1598,  there  is  printed  a  captured  Spanish  let- 
ter of  the  famous  sea-captain,  Sebastian  Biscaino,  on  the 
Philippine  trade.  Biscaino  grieves  over  the  loss  of  life 
which  had  accompanied  the  conquest  of  the  Philippines, 
and  the  treacherous  climate  of  the  tropics.  "The  coun- 
try is  very  unwholesome  for  us  Spaniards.  For  within 
these  20  years,  of  14,000  which  have  gone  to  the  Philip- 
pines, there  are  13,000  of  them  dead,  and  not  past  1,000 
of  them  left  alive."  l 

The  Spanish  Population.  —  The  Spanish  population  of 
the  Islands  was  always  small,  —  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century  certainly  not  more  than  two  thou- 
sand, and  probably  less  later  hi  the  century.  Morga 
divides  them  into  five  classes:  the  prelates  and  ecclesi- 
astics; the  encomenderos,  colonizers,  and  conquerors;  sol- 
diers and  officers  of  war  and  marine;  merchants  and  men 
of  business;  and  the  officers  of  his  Majesty's  govern- 
ment. "Very  few  are  living  now,"  he  says,  "of  those 
first  conquistadores  who  won  the  land  and  effected 
the  conquest  with  the  Adelantado  Miguel  Lopez  de  Le- 
gazpi."  2 

The  Largest  Cities.  —  Most  of  this  Spanish  population 
dwelt  in  Manila  or  hi  the  five  other  cities  which  the  Span- 


1  The  Principal  Navigations,  Voiages,  Trafligues  and  Discoveries  of 
the  English  Nation,  .  .  .  by  Richard  Hakluyt,  Master  of  Artes  and 
sometime  Student  of-  Christ  Church  in  Oxford.  Imprinted  at  London, 
1598.  Vol.  I.,  p.  560. 

3  Sucesos  de  las  Filipinos,  p.  347. 


172  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

iards  had  founded  in  the  first  three  decades  of  their  oc- 
cupation.   These  were  as  follows:  — 

The  City  of  Nueva  Segovia,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Cagayan,  was  founded  in  the  governorship  of  Ronquillo, 
when  the  valley  of  the  Cagayan  was  first  occupied  and  the 
Japanese  colonists,  who  had  settled  there,  were  expelled. 
It  had  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  two 
hundred  Spaniards,  living  in  houses  of  wood.  There  was 
a  fort  of  stone,  where  some  artillery  was  mounted.  Be- 
sides the  two  hundred  Spanish  inhabitants  there  were  one 
hundred  regular  Spanish  soldiers,  with  their  officers  and 
the  alcalde  mayor  of  the  province.  Nueva  Segovia  was 
also  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  which  included  all  northern 
Luzon.  The  importance  of  the  then  promising  city  has 
long  ago  disappeared,  and  the  pueblo  of  Lallok,  which 
marks  its  site,  is  an  insignificant  native  town. 

The  City  of  Nueva  Caceres,  in  the  Camarines,  was 
founded  by  Governor  Sande.  It,  too,  was  the  seat 
of  a  bishopric,  and  had  one  hundred  Spanish  inhabit- 
ants. 

The  Cities  of  Cebu  and  Iloilo.  —  In  the  Bisayas  were 
the  Cities  of  the  Holy  Name  of  God  (Cebu),  and  on  the 
island  of  Panay,  Arevalo  (or  Iloilo).  The  first  maintained 
something  of  the  importance  attaching  to  the  first  Spanish 
settlement.  It  had  its  stone  fort  and  was  also  the  seat  of 
a  bishopric.  It  was  visited  by  trading-vessels  from  the 
Moluccas,  and  by  permit  of  the  king  enjoyed  for  a  time 
the  unusual  privilege  of  sending  annually  a  ship  loaded 
with  merchandise  to  New  Spain.  Arevalo  had  about 
eighty  Spanish  inhabitants,  and  a  monastery  of  the 
Augustinians. 

The  City  of  Fernandina,  or  Big  an,  which  Salcedo 
had  founded,  was  nearly  without  Spanish  inhabitants. 


THREE  HUNDRED  YEARS  AGO.  173 

Still,  it  was  the  political  center  of  the  great  Ilokano  coast, 
and  it  has  held  this  position  to  the  present  day. 

Manila.  —  But  all  of  these  cities  were  far  surpassed  in 
importance  by  the  capital  on  the  banks  of  the  Pasig. 
The  wisdom  of  Legazpi's  choice  had  been  more  than 
justified.  Manila,  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  was  unquestionably  the  most  important  Euro- 
pean city  of  the  East.  As  we  have  already  seen,  in  1580 
Portugal  had  been  annexed  by  Spain  and  with  her  had 
come  all  the  Portuguese  possessions  hi  India,  China,  and 
Malaysia.  After  1610,  the  Dutch  were  almost  annually 
warring  for  this  colonial  empire,  and  Portugal  regained 
her  independence  in  1640.  But  for  the  first  few  years  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  Manila  was  the  political  mistress 
of  an  empire  that  stretched  from  Goa  to  Formosa  and 
embraced  all  those  coveted  lands  which  for  a  century  and 
a  half  had  been  the  desire  of  European  states. 

The  governor  of  the  Philippines  was  almost  an  inde- 
pendent king.  Nominally,  he  was  subordinate  to  the 
viceroy  of  Mexico,  but  practically  he  waged  wars,  con- 
cluded peaces,  and  received  and  sent  embassies  at  his  own 
discretion.  The  kingdom  of  Cambodia  was  his  ally,  and 
the  states  of  China  and  Japan  were  his  friends. 

The  Commercial  Importance  of  Manila.  — Manila  was 
also  the  commercial  center  of  the  Far  East,  and  the  en- 
trepot through  which  the  kingdoms  of  eastern  Asia  ex- 
changed their  wares.  Here  came  great  fleets  of  junks 
from  China  laden  with  stores.  Morga  fills  nearly  two 
pages  with  an  enumeration  of  their  merchandise,  which 
included  all  manner  of  silks,  brocades,  furniture,  pearls 
and  gems,  fruits,  nuts,  tame  buffalo,  geese,  horses  and 
mules,  all  kinds  of  animals,  "even  to  birds  in  cages,  some 
of  which  talk  and  others  sing,  and  which  they  make  per- 


174  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

form  a  thousand  tricks;  there  are  innumerable  other  gew- 
gaws and  knickknacks,  which  among  Spaniards  are  in 
much  esteem."  l 

Each  year  a  fleet  of  thirty  to  forty  vessels  sailed  with 
the  new  moon  in  March.  The  voyage  across  the  China 
Sea,  rough  with  the  monsoons,  occupied  fifteen  or  twenty 
days,  and  the  fleet  returned  at  the  end  of  May  or  the 
beginning  of  June.  Between  October  and  March  there 
came,  each  year,  Japanese  ships  from  Nagasaki  which 
brought  wheat,  silks,  objects  of  art,  and  weapons,  and 
took  away  from  Manila  the  raw  silk  of  China,  gold,  deer 
horns,  woods,  honey,  wax,  palm-wine,  and  wine  of  Castile. 

From  Malacca  and  India  came  fleets  of  the  Portuguese 
subjects  of  Spain,  with  spices,  slaves,  Negroes  and  Kafirs, 
and  the  rich  productions  of  Bengal,  India,  Persia,  and 
Turkey.  From  Borneo,  too,  came  the  smaller  craft  of  the 
Malays,  who  from  their  boats  sold  the  fine  palm  mats,  the 
best  of  which  still  come  from  Cagayan  de  Sulu  and  Borneo, 
slaves,  sago,  water-pots  and  glazed  earthenware,  black 
and  fine.  From  Siam  and  Cambodia  also,  but  less  often, 
there  came  trading-ships.  Manila  was  thus  a  great  em- 
porium for  all  the  countries  of  the  East,  the  trade  of 
which  seems  to  have  been  conducted  largely  by  and 
through  the  merchants  of  Manila. 

Trade  with  Mexico  and  Spain  Restricted.  —  The  com- 
merce between  the  Philippines,  and  Mexico  and  Spain, 
though  it  was  of  vast  importance,  was  limited  by  action  of 
the  crown.  It  was  a  commerce  which  apparently  ad- 
mitted of  infinite  expansion,  but  the  shortsighted  mer- 
chants and  manufacturers  of  the  Peninsula  clamored 
against  its  development,  and  it  was  subjected  to  the 
severest  limitations.  Four  galleons  were  at  first  maiii- 

1  Sucesos  de  las  Filipinos,  p.  352. 


THREE  HUNDRED   YEARS  AGO.  175 

tained  for  this  trade,  which  were  dispatched  two  at  a 
time  in  successive  years  from  Manila  to  the  port  of  Aca- 
pulco,  Mexico.  The  letter  on  the  Philippine  trade,  already 
quoted,  states  that  these  galleons  were  great  ships  of  six 
hundred  and  eight  hundred  tons  apiece.1  They  went 
"very  strong  with  soldiers,"  and  they  carried  the  annual 
mail,  reinforcements,  and  supplies  of  Mexican  silver  for 
trade  with  China,  which  has  remained  the  commercial 
currency  of  the  East  to  the  present  day.  Later  the  num- 
ber of  galleons  was  reduced  to  one. 

The  Rich  Cargoes  of  the  Galleons.  —  The  track  of  the 
Philippine  galleon  lay  from  Luzon  northeastward  to  about 
the  forty-second  degree  of  latitude,  where  the  westerly 
winds  prevail,  thence  nearly  straight  across  the  ocean  to 
Cape  Mendocino  in  northern  California,  which  was  dis- 
covered and  mapped  by  Biscaino  in  1602.  Thence  the 
course  lay  down  the  western  coast  of  North  America 
nearly  three  thousand  miles  to  the  port  of  Acapulco. 

We  can  imagine  how  carefully  selected  and  rich  in 
quality  were  the  merchandises  with  which  these  solitary 
galleons  were  freighted,  the  pick  of  all  the  rich  stores 
which  came  to  Manila.  The  profits  were  enormous,  — 
six  and  eight  hundred  per  cent.  Biscaino  wrote  that 
with  two  hundred  ducats  invested  in  Spanish  wares  and 
some  Flemish  commodities,  he  made  fourteen  hundred 
ducats ;  but,  he  added,  in  1588  he  lost  a  ship,  —  robbed 
and  burned  by  Englishmen.  On  the  safe  arrival  of  these 
ships  depended  how  much  of  the  fortunes  of  the  colony! 

Capture  of  the  Galleons.  —  For  generations  these  gal- 
leons were  probably  the  most  tempting  and  romantic 
prize  that  ever  aroused  the  cupidity  of  privateer.  The 
first  to  profit  by  this  rich  booty  was  Thomas  Cavendish, 

1  Laws  of  the  Indies,  VIII.,  45,  46. 


176 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


who  in  1587  came  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan  with  a 
fleet  of  three  vessels.  Like  Drake  before  him,  he  ravaged 
the  coast  of  South  America  and  then  steered  straight 
away  across  the  sea  to  the  Moluccas.  Here  he  acquired 
information  about  the  rich  commerce  of  the  Philippines  and 
of  the  yearly  voyage  of  the  galleon.  Back  across  the  Pa- 
cific went  the  fleet  of  Cavendish  for  the  coast  of  California. 
In  his  own  narrative  he  tells  how  he  beat  up  and 


Capture  of  the  Galleon  "Cabadonga,"  off  the  Coast  of  Samar. 
(From  a  print  in  Anson's  Voyage  Around  the  World.) 

down  between  Capes  San  Lucas  and  Mendocino  until  the 
galleon,  heavy  with  her  riches,  appeared.  She  fell  into 
his  hands  almost  without  a  fray.  She  carried  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-two  thousand  pesos  of  gold  and  a  great 
and  rich  store  of  satins,  damask,  and  musk.  Cavendish 
landed  the  Spanish  on  the  California  coast,  burned  the 
"Santa  Ana,"  and  then  returned  to  the  Philippines  and 
made  an  attack  upon  the  shipyard  of  Iloilo,  but  was  re- 


THREE  HUNDRED   YEARS  AGO.  177 

pulsed.  He  sent  a  letter  to  the  governor  at  Manila,  boast- 
ing of  his  capture,  and  then  sailed  for  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  and  home. 

There  is  an  old  story  that  tells  how  his  seaworn  ships 
came  up  the  Thames,  their  masts  hung  with  silk  and 
damask  sails.  From  this  time  on  the  venture  was  less 
safe.  In  1588  there  came  to  Spain  the  overwhelming 
disaster  of  her  history,  —  the  destruction  of  the  Great 
Armada.  From  this  date  her  power  was  gone,  and  her 
name  was  no  longer  a  terror  on  the  seas.  English  free- 
booters controlled  the  oceans,  and  in  1610  the  Dutch 
appeared  in  the  East,  never  to  withdraw. 

The  City  of  Manila  Three  Hundred  Years  Ago.  —  We 
can  hardly  close  this  chapter  without  some  further  ref- 
erence to  the  city  of  Manila  as  it  appeared  three  hundred 
years  ago.  Morga  has  fortunately  left  us  a  detailed  de- 
scription from  which  the  following  points  in  the  main  are 
drawn.  As  wo  have  already  seen,  Legazpi  had  laid  out 
the  city  on  the  blackened  site  of  the  town  and  fortress 
of  the  Mohammedan  prince,  which  had  been  destroyed  in 
the  struggle  for  occupation.  He  gave  it  the  same  extent 
and  dimensions  that  it  possesses  to  this  day. 

Like  other  colonial  capitals  in  the  Far  East,  it  was 
primarily  a  citadel  and  refuge  from  attack.  On  the 
point  between  the  sea  and  the  river  Legazpi  had  begun  the 
famous  and  permanent  fortress  of  Santiago.  In  the  time 
of  the  great  Adelantado  it  was  probably  only  a  wooden 
stockade,  but  under  the  governor  Santiago  de  Vera  it  was 
built  up  of  stone.  Cavendish  (1587)  describes  Manila 
as  "an  unwalled  town  and  of  no  great  strength,"  but 
under  the  improvements  and  completions  made  by  Das- 
mariiias  about  1590  it  assumed  much  of  its  present  ap- 
pearance. Its  guns  thoroughly  commanded  the  entrance 


178  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

to  the  river  Pasig  and  made  the  approach  of  hostile  boats 
from  the  harbor  side  impossible. 

It  is  noteworthy,  then,  that  all  the  assaults  that  have 
been  made  upon  the  city,  from  that  of  Limahong,  to  those 
of  the  British  in  1762,  and  of  the  Americans  in  1898, 
have  been  directed  against  the  southern  wall  by  an  ad- 
vance from  Malate.  Dasmarinas  also  inclosed  the  city 
with  a  stone  wall,  the  base  from  which  the  present  noble 
rampart  has  arisen.  It  had  originally  a  width  of  from 
seven  and  a  half  to  nine  feet.  Of  its  height  no  figure 
is  given.  Morga  says  simply  that  with  its  buttresses 
and  turrets  it  was  sufficiently  high  for  the  purposes  of  de- 
fense. 

The  Old  Fort.  —  There  was  a  stone  fort  on  the  south 
side  facing  Ermita,  known  as  the  Fortress  of  Our  Lady  of 
Guidance;  and  there  were  two  or  more  bastions,  each  with 
six  pieces  of  artillery,  —  St.  Andrew's,  now  a  powder  mag- 
azine at  the  southeast  corner,  and  St.  Gabriel's,  over- 
looking the  Parian  district,  where  the  Chinese  were  settled. 

The  three  principal  gates  to  the  city,  with  the  smaller 
wickets  and  posterns,  which  opened  on  the  river  and  sea, 
were  regularly  closed  at  night  by  the  guard  which  made 
the  rounds.  At  each  gate  and  wicket  was  a  permanent 
post  of  soldiers  and  artillerists. 

The  Plaza  de  Armas  adjacent  to  the  fort  had  its  ar- 
senal, stores,  powder-works,  and  a  foundry  for  the  cast- 
ing of  guns  and  artillery.  The  foundry,  when  established 
by  Ronquillo,  was  in  charge  of  a  Pampangan  Indian  called 
Pandapira. 

The  Spanish  Buildings  of  the  City.  —  The  buildings 
of  the  city,  especially  the  Casas  Reales  and  the  churches  and 
monasteries,  had  been  durably  erected  of  stone.  Chirino 
claims  that  the  hewing  of  stone,  the  burning  of  lime,  and 


THREE  HUNDRED   YEARS  AGO:  179 

the  training  of  native  and  Chinese  artisans  for  this  build- 
ing, were  the  work  of  the  Jesuit  father,  Sedefio.  He  him- 
self fashioned  the  first  clay  tiles  and  built  the  first  stone 
house,  and  so  urged  and  encouraged  others,  himself  direct- 
ing, the  building  of  public  works,  that  the  city,  which  a 
little  before  had  been  solely  of  timber  and  cane,  had  be- 
come gne  of  the  best  constructed  and  most  beautiful  in 
the  Indies.1  He  it  was  also  who  sought  out  Chinese 
painters  and  decorators  and  ornamented  the  churches  with 
images  and  paintings. 

Within  the  walls,  there  were  some  six  hundred  houses  of 
a  private  nature,  most  of  them  built  of  stone  and  tile,  and 
an  equal  number  outside  in  the  suburbs,  or  "arrabales," 
all  occupied  by  Spaniards  ("todos  son  vivienda  y  pob- 
lacion  de  los  Espanoles").2 

This  gives  some  twelve  hundred  Spanish  families  or 
establishments,  exclusive  of  the  religious,  who  in  Manila 
numbered  at  least  one  hundred  and  fifty,3  the  garrison, 
at  certain  times,  about  four  hundred  trained  Spanish 
soldiers  who  had .  seen  service  in  Holland  and  the  Low 
Countries,  and  the  official  classes. 

The  Malecon  and  the  Lunetcu.  —  It  is  interesting  at 
this  early  date  to  find  mention  of  the  famous  recreation 
drive,  the  Paseo  de  Bagumbayan,  now  commonly  known 
as  the  Malecon  and  Luneta.  "Manila,"  says  our  historian, 
"has  two  places  of  recreation  on  land;  the  one,  which  is 
clean  and  wide,  extends  from  the  point  called  Our  Lady 
of  Guidance  for  about  a  league  along  the  sea,  and  through 
the  street  and  village  of  natives,  called  Bagumbayan,  to 


1  Relation  de  las  Islas  Filipinas,  chap.  V.,  p.  23,  and  chap.  XIII., 
p.  47. 

1  Morga,  Sucesos  de  las  Islas  Filipinas,  p.  323. 
8  Ibid.,  p.  321. 


180  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

a  very  devout  hermitage  (Ermita),  called  the  Hermitage 
of  Our  Lady  of  Guidance,  and  from  there  a  good  distance 
to  a  monastery  and  mission  (doctrina)  of  the  Augustin- 
ians,  called  Mahalat  (Malate)."  *  The  other  drive  lay  out 
through  the  present  suburb  of  Concepcion,  then  called 
Laguio,  to  Paco,  where  was  a  monastery  of  the  Francis- 
cans. 

The  Chinese  in  Manila.  —  Early  Chinese  Commerce.  - 
We  have  seen  that  even  as  long  ago  as  three  hundred 
years  Manila  was  a  metropolis  of  the  Eastern  world.  Ves- 
sels from  many  lands  dropped  anchor  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Pasig,  and  their  merchants  set  up  their  booths  within  her 
markets.  Slaves  from  far-distant  India  and  Africa  were 
sold  under  her  walls.  Surely  it  was  a  cosmopolitan  popu- 
lation that  the  shifting  monsoons  carried  to  and  from  her 
gates. 

But  of  all  these  Eastern  races  only  one  has  been 
a  constant  and  important  factor  in  the  life  of  the  Islands. 
This  is  the  Chinese.  It  does  not  appear  that  they  settled 
in  the  country  or  materially  affected  the  life  of  the  Fili- 
pinos until  the  establishment  of  Manila  by  the  Spaniards. 
The  Spaniards  were  early  desirous  of  cultivating  friendly 
relations  with  the  Empire  of  China.  Salcedo,  on  his  first 
punitive  expedition  to  Mindoro,  had  found  a  Chinese  junk, 
which  had  gone  ashore  on  the  western  coast.  He  was 
careful  to  rescue  these  voyagers  and  return  them  to  their 
own  land,  with  a  friendly  message  inviting  trading  rela- 
tions. Commerce  and  immigration  followed  immediately 
the  founding  of  the  city. 

The  Chinese  are  without  question  the  most  remarkable 
colonizers  in  the  world.  They  seem  able  to  thrive  in 
any  climate.  They  readily  marry  with  every  race.  The 

1  Morga:  Sucesos,  p.  324. 


THREE  HUNDRED   YEARS  AGO.  181 

children  that  follow  such  unions  are  not  only  numerous 
but  healthy  and  intelligent.  The  coasts  of  China  teem 
with  overcrowding  populations.  Emigration  to  almost 
any  land  means  improvement  of  the  Chinese  of  poor  birth. 
These  qualities  and  conditions,  with  their  keen  sense  for 
trade  and  their  indifference  to  physical  hardship  and 
danger,  make  the  Chinese  almost  a  dominant  factor 
wherever  political  barriers  have  not  been  raised  against 
their  entrance. 

The  Chinese  had  early  gained  an  important  place  in  the 
commercial  and  industrial  life  of  Manila.  A  letter  to  the 
king  from  Bishop  Salazar  shows  that  he  befriended  them 
and  was  warm  in  their  praise.1  This  was  in  1590,  and 
there  were  then  in  Manila  and  Tondo  about  seven  thou- 
sand resident  Chinese,  and  they  were  indispensable  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  city. 

Importance  of  Chinese  Labor  and  Trade.  —  In  the 
early  decades  of  Spanish  rule,  the  Philippines  were  poor  in 
resources  and  the  population  was  sparse,  quite  insufficient 
for  the  purposes  of  the  Spanish  colonizers.  Thus  the 
early  development  of  the  colony  was  based  upon  Chinese 
labor  and  Chinese  trade.  As  the  early  writers  are  fond  of 
emphasizing,  from  China  came  not  only  the  finished  silks 
and  costly  wares,  which  in  large  part  were  destined  for 
the  trade  to  New  Spain  and  Europe,  but  also  cattle,  horses 
and  mares,  foodstuffs,  metals,  fruits,  and  even  ink  and 
paper.  "And  what  is  more,"  says  Chirino,  "from  China 
come  those  who  supply  every  sort  of  service,  all  dexterous, 
prompt,  and  cheap,  from  physicians  and  barbers  to  burden- 
bearers  and  porters.  They  are  the  tailors  and  shoemakers, 
metal-workers,  silversmiths,  sculptors,  locksmiths,  paint- 


1  Carlo,  Relsicidn  de  las  Cosas  de  la  China  y  delos  Chinos  del  Parian 
de  Manila,  1590;  in  Retana,  Archivo,  vol.  III. 


182  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

ers,  masons,  weavers,  and  finally  every  kind  of  servitors 
in  the  commonwealth."  l 

Distrust  of  the  Chinese.  —  In  those  days,  not  only 
were  the  Chinese  artisans  and  traders,  but  they  were  also 
farmers  and  fishermen,  —  occupations  in  which  they  are 
now  not  often  seen.  But  in  spite  of  their  economic  neces- 
sity, the  Chinese  were  always  looked  upon  with  disfavor 
and  their  presence  with  dread.  Plots  of  murder  and  in- 
surrection were  supposedly  rife  among  them.  Writers  ob- 
ject that  their  numbers  were  so  great  that  there  was  no 
security  in  the  land;  their  life  was  bad  and  vicious; 
through  intercourse  with  them  the  natives  advanced  but 
little  in  Christianity  and  customs;  they  were  such  terrible 
eaters  that  they  made  foods  scarce  and  prices  high. 

If  permitted,  they  went  everywhere  through  the  Islands 
and  committed  a  thousand  abuses  and  offenses.  They  ex- 
plored every  spot,  river,  estero,  and  harbor,  and  knew 
the  country  better  even  than  the  Spaniard  himself,  so 
that  if  any  enemy  should  come  they  would  be  able  to 
cause  infinite  mischief.2  When  we  find  so  just  and  high- 
minded  a  man  as  the  president  of  the  Audiencia,  Morga, 
giving  voice  to  such  charges,  we  may  be  sure  that  the  feel- 
ing was  deep  and  terrible,  and  practically  universal  among 
all  Spanish  inhabitants. 

The  First  Massacre  of  the  Chinese-  — Each  race  feared 
and  suspected  the  other,  and  from  this  mutual  cowardice 
came  in  1603  a  cruel  outbreak  and  massacre.  Three  Chi- 
nese mandarins  arrived  in  that  year,  stating  that  they 
had -been  sent  by  the  emperor  to  investigate  a  report  that 
there  was  a  mountain  in  Cavite  of  solid  precious  metal. 

1  Relation  de  las  Islas  Filipinas,  p.  18.     See  also  Salazar,  Carta 
Relacidn. 

2  Sucesos  de  las  Islas  Filipinas,  p.  364. 


THREE  HUNDRED  YEARS  AGO.        183 

This  myth  was  no  more  absurd  than  many  pursued  by  the 
Spaniards  themselves  in  their  early  conquests,  and  it 
doubtless  arose  from  the  fact  that  Chinese  wares  were 
largely  purchased  by  Mexican  bullion;  but  the  Spaniards 
were  at  once  filled  with  suspicion  of  an  invasion,  and 
their  distrust  turned  against  the  Chinese  in  the  Islands. 

How  far  these  latter  were  actually  plotting  sedition 
and  how  far  they  were  driven  into  attack  by  their 
fears  at  the  conduct  of  the  Spaniards  can  hardly  be  de- 
cided. But  the  fact  is,  that  on  the  evening  of  Saint 
Francis  day  the  Chinese  of  the  Parian  rose.  The  dragon 
banners  were  raised,  war-gongs  were  beaten,  and  that 
night  the  pueblos  of  Quiapo  and  Tondo  were  burned  and 
many  Filipinos  murdered. 

In  the  morning  a  force  of  130  Spaniards,  under  Don 
Luis  Dasmarifias  and  Don  Tomas  Bravo,  were  sent  across 
the  river,  and  in  the  fight  nearly  every  Spaniard  was  slain. 
The  Chinese  then  assaulted  the  city,  but,  according  to 
the  tradition  of  the  priests,  they  were  driven  back  in  terror 
by  the  apparition  of  Saint  Francis  on  the  walls.  They 
threw  up  forts  on  the  site  of  the  Parian  and  in  Dilao,  but 
the  power  of  their  wild  fury  was  gone  and  the  Spaniards 
were  able  to  dislodge  and  drive  them  into  the  country 
about  San  Pablo  del  Monte.  From  here  they  were  dis- 
persed with  great  slaughter.  Twenty-three  thousand 
Chinese  are  reported  by  Zuniga  to  have  perished  in 
this  sedition.  If  his  report  is  true,  the  number  of  Chinese 
in  the  Islands  must  have  increased  very  rapidly  between 
1590  and  1603. 

Restriction  of  Chinese  Immigration  and  Travel. — 
Commerce  and  immigration  began  again  almost  immediately. 
The  number  of  Chinese,  however,  allowed  to  remain  was 
reduced.  The  Chinese  ships  that  came  annually  to  trade 


184  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

were  obliged  to  take  back  with  them  the  crews  and  pas- 
sengers which  they  brought.  Only  a  limited  number  of 
merchants  and  artisans  were  permitted  to  live  in  the  Is- 
lands. They  were  confined  to  three  districts  in  the  city  of 
Manila,  and  to  the  great  market,  the  Alcayceria  or  Parian. 

The  word  "  Parian  "  was  first  used  for  the  Chinese 
quarter  adjoining  the  walled  city  on  the  present  site  of 
the  Botanical  Garden,  but  about  1640  the  "  New  Parian  " 
was  built  in  Binondo,  about  the  present  Calle  San  Fern- 
ando. It  consisted  of  a  block  of  stores  in  the  form  of  a 
square,  with  small  habitations  above  them.  Here  was 
the  great  market  of  Manila. 

They  could  not  travel  about  the  Islands,  nor  go  two 
leagues  from  the  city  without  a  written  license,  nor  remain 
over  night  within  the  city  after  the  gates  were  closed,  on 
penalty  of  their  lives.  They  had  their  own  alcalde  and 
judge,  a  tribunal  and  jail ;  and  on  the  north  side  of  the 
river  Dominican  friars,  who  had  learned  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage, had  erected  a  mission  and  hospital.  There  was  a 
separate  barrio  for  the  baptized  Chinese  and  their  families, 
to  the  number  of  about  five  hundred. 

The  Chinese  in  the  Philippines  from  the  earliest  time  to 
the  present  have  been  known  by  the  name  of  "Sang- 
leyes."  The  derivation  of  this  curious  word  is  uncertain; 
but  Navarrete,  who  must  have  understood  Chinese  well, 
says  that  the  word  arose  from  a  misapprehension  of  the 
words  spoken  by  the  Chinese  who  first  presented  them- 
selves at  Manila.  "Being  asked  what  they  came  for, 
they  answered,  'Xang  Lei,'  that  is,  'We  come  to  trade.' 
The  Spaniards,  who  understood  not  their  language,  con- 
'ceiving  it  to  be  the  name  of  a  country,  and  putting  the 
two  words  together,  made  one  of  them,  by  which  they 
still  distinguish  the  Chinese,  calling  them.Sangleyes." 


THREE  HUNDRED   YEARS  AGO.  185 

The  Japanese  Colony.  —  There  was  also  hi  these  early 
years  quite  a  colony  of  Japanese.  Their  community  lay 
between  the  Parian  and  the  barrio  of  Laguio.  There  were 
about  five  hundred,  and  among  them  the  Franciscans 
claimed  a  goodly  number  of  converts. 

The  Filipino  District  of  Tondo.  —  We  have  described  at 
some  length  the  city  south  of  the  river  and  the  surround- 
ing suburbs,  most  of  them  known  by  the  names  they  hold 
to-day.  North  of  the  Pasig  was  the  great  district  of 
Tondo,  the  center  of  that  strong,  independent  Filipino 
feeling  which  at  an  early  date  was  colored  with  Moham- 
medanism and  to  this  day  is  strong  in  local  feeling.  This 
region  has  thriven  and  built  up  until  it  has  long  been  by 
far  the  most  important  and  populous  part  of  the  metrop- 
olis, but  not  until  very  recent  tunes  was  it  regarded  as  a 
part  of  the  city  of  Manila,  which  name  was  reserved  for 
the  walled  city  alone. 

A  bridge  across  the  Pasig,  on  the  site  of  the  present 
Puente  de  Espana,  connected  the  two  districts  at  a  date 
later  than  ^Morga's  time.  It  was  one  of  the  first  things 
noticed  by  Navarrete,  who,  without  describing  it  well, 
says  it  was  very  fine.  It  was  built  during  the  governor- 
ship of  Nino  de  Tabora,  who  died  in  1632.1  Montero 
states  that  it  was  of  stone,  and  that  this  same  bridge 
stood  for  more  than  two  centuries,  resisting  the  incessant 
traffic  and  the  strength  of  floods.8 

The  Decline  of  Manila  during  the  Next  Century.  —  Such 
was  Manila  thirty-five  and  forty  years  after  its  founda- 
tion. It  was  at  the  zenith  of  its  importance,  the  capital 
of  the  eastern  colonies,  the  mart  of  Asia,  more  splendid 
than  Goa,  more  powerful  than  Malacca  or  Macao,  more 

1  Zufiiga:  Historia  de  las  Filipinas,  p.  252. 
1  Historia  General  de  Filipinas,  vol.  I.,  p.  187. 


186  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

populous  and  far  more  securely  held  than  Ternate  and 
Tidor.  "Truly,"  exclaimed  Chirino,  "it  is  another  Tyre, 
so  magnified  by  Ezekiel."  It  owed  its  great  place  to  the 
genius  and  daring  of  the  men  who  founded  it,  to  the  free- 
dom of  action  which  it  had  up  to  this  point  enjoyed, 
and  to  its  superlative  situation. 

In  the  years  that  followed  we  have  to  recount  for 
the  most  part  only  the  process  of  decline.  Spain  her- 
self was  fast  on  the  wane.  A  few  years  later  and  the 
English  had  almost  driven  her  navies  from  the  seas,  the 
Portuguese  had  regained  their  independence  and  lost  em- 
pire, the  Dutch  were  in  the  East,  harrying  Portuguese  and 
Spaniard  alike  and  fast  monopolizing  the  rich  trade.  The 
^commerce  and  friendly  relations  with  the  Chinese,  on 
which  so  much  depended,  were  broken  by  massacre  and 
reprisal;  and,  most  terrible  and  piteous  of  all,  the  awful 
wrath  and  lust  of  the  Malay  pirate,  for  decade  after  de- 
cade, was  to  be  visited  upon  the  archipelago. 

The  colonial  policy  of  the  mother-land,  selfish,  short- 
sighted, and  criminal,  was  soon  to  make  its  paralyzing 
influence  felt  upon  trade  and  administration  alike.  These 
things  were  growing  and  taking  place  in  the  next  period 
which  we  have  to  consider,  —  the  years  from  1600  to 
1663.  They  left  the  Philippines  despoiled  and  insignifi- 
cant for  a  whole  succeeding  century,  a  decadent  colony 
and  an  exploited  treasure. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
THE   DUTCH  AND   MORO   WARS.    1600-1663. 

Loss  of  the  Naval  Power  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  —  The 
seizure  of  Portugal  by  Philip  II.  in  1580  was  disastrous 
in  its  consequences  to  both  Portugal  and  Spain.  For 
Portugal  it  was  humiliation  and  loss  of  colonial  power. 
Spain  was  unequal  to  the  task  of  defending  the  Portu- 
guese possessions,  and  her  jealousy  of  their  prosperity 
seems  to  have  caused  her  deliberately  to  neglect  their  in- 
terests and  permit  their  decline.  In  one  day  Portugal 
lost  possession  of  that  splendid  and  daring  navy  which  had 
first  found  a  way  to  the  Indies.  Several  hundred  Portu- 
guese ships,  thousands  of  guns,  and  large  sums  of  money 
were  appropriated  by  Spain  upon  the  annexation  of  Por- 
tugal.1 Many  of  these  ill-fated  ships  went  down  in  the 
English  Channel  with  the  Great  Armada. 

When  the  terrible  news  of  the  destruction  of  this  power- 
ful armament,  on  which  rested  Spanish  hopes  for  the  con- 
quest and  humiliation  of  England,  was  brought  to  the 
Escorial,  the  magnificent  palace  where  the  years  of  the 
king  were  passed,  Philip  II.,  that  strange  man,  whose 
countenance  seldom  changed  at  tidings  of  either  defeat  or 
victory,  is  reported  to  have  simply  said,  "  I  thank  God 
that  I  have  the  power  to  replace  the  loss."  He  was  fatu- 
ously mistaken.  The  loss  could  never  be  made  good. 
The  navies  of  Spain  and  Portugal  were  never  fully  rebuilt. 
In  that  year,  1588,  preeminence  on  the  sea  passed  to  the 
English  and  the  Dutch. 

1  Morris:  The  History  of  Colonization,  vol.  I.,  p.  215  sq. 

187 


188  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  Netherlands  Become  an  Independent  Country.  — 
Who  were  these  Dutch,  or  Hollanders?  How  came  they 
to  wrest  from  Spain  and  Portugal  a  colonial  empire,  which 
they  hold  to-day  without  loss  of  prosperity  or  evidence  of 
decline?  In  the  north  of  Europe,  facing  the  North  Sea, 
is  a  low,  rich  land,  intersected  by  rivers  and  washed  far 
into  its  interior  by  the  tides,  known  as  Holland,  the  Low 
Countries,  or  the  Netherlands.  Its  people  have  ever  been 
famed  for  their  industry  and  hardihood.  In  manufacture 
and  trade  in  the  latter  Middle  Age,  they  stood  far  in  the 
lead  in  northern  Europe.  Their  towns  and  cities  were  the 
thriftiest,  most  prosperous,  and  most  cleanly. 

We  have  already  explained  the  curious  facts  of  succes- 
sion by  which  these  countries  became  a  possession  of  the 
Spanish  king,  Emperor  Charles  the  Fifth.  The  Low  Coun- 
tries were  always  greatly  prized  by  Charles,  and  in  spite 
of  the  severities  of  his  rule  he  held  their  affection  and 
loyalty  until  his  death.  It  was  in  the  city  of  Antwerp 
that  he  formally  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  Philip  II., 
and,  as  described  by  contemporary  historians,  this  solemn 
and  imposing  ceremony  was  witnessed  with  every  mark 
of  loyalty  by  the  assembly. 

The  Rebellion.  —  But  the  oppressions  and  persecu- 
tions of  Philip's  reign  drove  the  people  to  rebellion.  The 
Netherlands  had  embraced  the  Protestant  religion,  and 
when,  in  addition  to  plunder,  intimidation,  the  quartering 
of  Spanish  soldiery,  and  the  violation  of  sovereign  prom- 
ises, Philip  imposed  that  terrible  and  merciless  institution, 
the  Spanish  Inquisition,  the  Low  Countries  faced  the  ty- 
rant in  a  passion  of  rebellion. 

War,  begun  in  1567,  dragged  on  for  years.  There  was 
pitiless  cruelty,  and  the  sacking  of  cities  was  accompanied 
by  fearful  butchery.  In  1579  the  seven  Dutch  counties 


THE  DUTCH  AND  MORO   WARS.     1600-1663.         189 

effected  a  union  and  laid  the  basis  of  the  republic  of  the 
Netherlands.  Although  the  efforts  of  Spain  to  reconquer 
the  territory  continued  until  after  the  end  of  the  cen- 
tury, independence  was  maintained  for  years  before. 
,  Trade  between  Portugal  and  the  Netherlands  Forbidden. 
—  A  large  portion  of  the  commerce  of  the  Low  Countries 
had  been  with  Lisbon.  The  Portuguese  did  not  distrib- 
ute to  Europe  the  products  which  their  navies  brought 
from  the  Indies.  Foreign  merchants  purchased  in  Lisbon 
and  carried  these  wares  to  other  lands,  and  to  a  very  large 
degree  this  service  had  been  performed  by  the  Dutch. 
But  after  the  annexation  of  Portugal,  Philip  forbade  all 
commerce  and  trade  between  the  two  countries.  By  this 
act  the  Dutch,  deprived  of  their  Lisbon  trade,  had  to  face 
the  alternative  of  commercial  ruin  or  the  gaining  of  those 
Eastern  products  for  themselves.  They  chose  the  latter 
course  with  all  its  risks.  It  was  soon  made  possible  by 
the  destruction  of  the  Armada. 

The  Dutch  Expeditions  to  the  Indies.  —  In  1595  their 
first  expedition,  led  by  one  Cornelius  Houtman,  who  had 
sailed  in  Portuguese  galleons,  rounded  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  and  entered  the  Indian  domain.  The  objective 
point  was  Java,  where  an  alliance  was  formed  with  the 
native  princes  and  a  cargo  of  pepper  secured.  Two  things 
were  shown  by  the  safe  return  of  this  fleet,  —  the  great 
wealth  and  profit  of  the  Indian  trade,  and  the  inability 
of  Spain  and  Portugal  to  maintain  their  monopoly. 

In  1598  the  merchants  of  Amsterdam  defeated  a  com- 
bined Spanish  and  Portuguese  fleet  in  the  East,  and  trad- 
ing settlements  were  secured  in  Java  and  Johore.  In 
1605  they  carried  their  factories  to  Amboina  and  Tidor. 

Effect  of  the  Success  of  the  Dutch.  —  The  exclusive 
monopoly  over  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans, 


190  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

which  Portugal  and  Spain  had  maintained  for  a  century, 
was  broken.  With  the  concurrence  of  the  Roman  See, 
they  had  tried  to  divide  the  New  World  and  the  Orient 
between  them.  That  effort  was  now  passed.  They  had 
claimed  the  right  to  exclude  from  the  vast  oceans  they 
had  discovered  the  vessels  of  every  other  nation  but  their 
own. 

This  doctrine  in  the  History  of  International  Law 
is  known  as  that  of  mare  clausum,  or  "  closed  sea."  The 
death-blow  to  this  domination  was  given  by  the  entrance 
of  the  Dutch  into  the  Indies,  and  it  is  not  a  mere  coinci- 
dence that  we  find  the  doctrine  of  closed  sea  itself  scien- 
tifically assailed,  a  few  years  later,  by  the  great  Dutch 
jurist,  Grotius,  the  founder  of  the  system  of  international 
law  in  his  work,  De  Libero  Mare. 

The  Trading  Methods  of  the  Dutch. — The  Dutch  made 
no  attempts  in  the  Indies  to  found  great  colonies  for  po- 
litical domination  and  religious  conversion.  Commerce 
was  their  sole  object.  Their  policy  was  to  form  alliances 
with  native  rulers,  promising  to  assist  them  against  the 
rule  of  the  Portuguese  or  Spaniard  in  return  for  exclu- 
sive privileges  of  trade.  In  this  they  were  more  than  suc- 
cessful. 

In  1602  they  obtained  permission  to  establish  a  factory 
at  Bantam,  on  the  island  of  Java.  This  was  even  then  a 
considerable  trading-point.  "Chinese,  Arabs,  Persians, 
Moors,  Turks,  Malabars,  Peguans,  and  merchants  from 
all  nations  were  established  there,"  the  principal  object  of 
trade  being  pepper.1 

The  character  of  the  treaty  made  by  the  Dutch  with 
the  king  of  Bantam  is  stated  by  Raffles.  "The  Dutch 
stipulated  to  assist  him  against  foreign  invaders,  particu- 

1  Raffles:  History  of  Java,  vol.  II.,  p.  116. 


THE  DUTCH  AND  MORO   WARS.    1600-1663.        191 

larly  Spaniards  and  Portuguese;  and  the  king,  on  his  side, 
agreed  to  make  over  to  the  Dutch  a  good  and  strong 
fort,  a  free  trade,  and  security  for  their  persons  and 
property  without  payment  of  any  duties  or-  taxes,  and 
to  allow  no  other  European  nation  to  trade  or  reside  in 
his  territories." 

Spanish  Expedition  against  the  Dutch  in  the  Moluccas. 
—  The  Spaniards,  however,  did  not  relinquish  the  field  to 
these  new  foes  without  a  struggle,  and  the  conflict  fills 
the  history  of  the  eighteenth  century.  When  the  Dutch 
expelled  the  Portuguese  from  Amboina  and  Tidor  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1605,  many  of  the  Portuguese  came  to  the  Phil- 
ippines and  enlisted  in  the  Spanish  forces.  The  governor, 
Don  Pedro  Bravo  de  Acuria,  filled  with  wrath  at  the  loss 
of  these  important  possessions,  with  great  activity  organ- 
ized an  expedition  for  their  conquest. 

In  the  previous  year  there  had  arrived  from  Spain  eight 
hundred  troops,  two  hundred  of  them  being  native 
Mexicans.  Thus  Acuna  was  able  to  organize  a  powerful 
fleet  that  mounted  seventy-five  pieces  of  artillery  and 
carried  over  fourteen  hundred  Spaniards  and  sixteen 
hundred  Indians.1  The  fleet  sailed  in  January,  1606. 
Tidor  was  taken  without  resistance  and  the  Dutch  fac- 
tory seized,  with  a  great  store  of  money,  goods,  and 
weapons.  The  Spaniards  then  assailed  Ternate;  the  fort 
and  plaza  were  bombarded,  and  then  the  town  was  car- 
ried by  storm. 

Thus,  at  last  was  accomplished  the  adventure  which 
for  nearly  a  century  had  inspired  the  ambitions  of  the 
Spaniards,  which  had  drawn  the  fleet  of  Magellan,  which 
had  wrecked  the  expeditions  of  Loaisa  and  Villalobos,  for 

1  On  the  history  of  this  notable  expedition  see  Argensola,  Conquista 
de  las  Islas  Molucas.  Madrid,  1609. 


192  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

which  the  Spaniards  in  the  Philippines  had  prepared  ex- 
pedition after  expedition,  and  for  which  Governor  Das- 
marinas  had  sacrificed  his  life.  At  last  the  Moluccas 
had  been  taken  by  the  forces  of  Spain. 

Capture  of  a  Dutch  Fleet  at  Mariveles.  —  So  far  from 
disposing  of  their  enemies,  however,  this  action  simply 
brought  the  Dutch  into  the  Philippines.  In  1609,  Juan 
de  Silva  became  governor  of  the  Islands  and  in  the  same 
year  arrived  the  Dutch  admiral,  Wittert,  with  a  squadron. 
After  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Iloilo,  the  Dutch  fleet 
anchored  off  Mariveles,  to  capture  vessels  arriving  for  the 
Manila  trade. 

At  this  place,  on  the  25th  of  April,  1610,  the  Spanish 
fleet,  which  had  been  hastily  fitted  at  Cavite,  attacked 
the  Dutch,  killing  the  admiral  and  taking  all  the  ships  but 
one,  two  hundred  and  fifty  prisoners,  and  a  large  amount 
of  silver  and  merchandise.  These  prisoners  seem  to  have 
been  treated  with  more  mercy  than  the  captives  of  Van 
Noort's  fleet,  who  were  hung  at  Cavite.  The  wounded  are 
said  to  have  been  cared  for,  and  the  friars  from  all  the 
religious  orders  vied  with  one  another  to  convert  these 
"Protestant  pirates"  from  their  heresy. 

An  Expedition  against  the  Dutch  in  Java.  —  Spain  made 
a  truce  of  her  European  wars  with  Holland  in  1609,  but 
this  cessation  of  hostilities  was  never  recognized  in  the 
East.  The  Dutch  and  Spanish  colonists  continued  to  war 
upon  and  pillage  each  other  until  late  in  the  century.  En- 
couraged by  his  victory  over  Wittert,  Silva  negotiated 
with  the  Portuguese  allies  in  Goa,  India,  to  drive  the 
Dutch  from  Java.  A  powerful  squadron  sailed  from 
Cavite  in  1616  for  this  purpose.  It  was  the  largest  fleet 
which  up  to  that  date  had  ever  been  assembled  in  the 
Philippines.  The  expedition,  however,  failed  to  unite  with 


THE  DUTCH  AND  MORO  WARS.    1600-166S.         193 

their  Portuguese  allies,  and  in  April,  Silva  died  at  Malacca 
of  malignant  fever. 

The  Dutch  Fleets.  —  Battles  near  Corregidor.  —  The 
fleet  returned  to  Cavite  to  find  that  the  city,  while  stripped 
of  soldiers  and  artillery,  had  been  hi  a  fever  of  anxiety 
and  apprehension  over  the  proximity  of  Dutch  vessels. 
They  were  those  of  Admiral  Spilbergen,  who  had  arrived 
by  way  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  the  Pacific.  He 
has  left  us  a  chart  of  the  San  Bernardino  Straits,  which  is 
reproduced  on  page  133.  Spilbergen  bombarded  Iloilo 
and  then  sailed  for  the  Moluccas. 

A  year  later  he  returned,  met  a  Spanish  fleet  of  seven 
galleons  and  two  galeras  near  Manila  and  suffered  a 
severe  defeat.1  The  battle  began  with  cannonading  on 
Friday,  April  13,  and  continued  throughout  the  day. 
On  the  following  day  the  vessels  came  to  close  quarters, 
the  Spaniards  boarded  the  Dutch  vessels,  and  the  battle 
was  fought  out  with  the  sword. 

The  Dutch  were  overwhelmed.  Probably  their  num- 
bers were  few.  The  Relation  states  they  had  fourteen 
galleons,  but  other  accounts  put  the  number  at  ten, 
three  vessels  of  which  were  destroyed  or  taken  by  the 
Spaniards.  One  of  them,  the  beautiful  ship,  "The  Sun 
of  Holland,"  was  burned.  This  combat  is  known  as  the 
battle  of  Playa  Honda.  Another  engagement  took  place  in 
the  same  waters  of  Corregidor,  late  in  1624,  when  a  Dutch 
fleet  was  driven  away  without  serious  loss  to  either  side. 

TJie  Dutch  Capture  Chinese  Junks,  and  Galleons.  — 
But  through  the  intervening  years,  fleets  of  the  Hollanders 


1  An  account  of  this  victory,  written  the  following  year,  Relation 
Verdadera  de  la  Grand  Vittoria,  que  el  Armada  Espanola  de  la  China 
tuuo  contra  los  Orlandeses  Pirates,  has  been  reprinted  by  Retana, 
Archivo  Biblidfilo  Filipino,  vol.  II. 


194  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

were  continually  arriving,  both  by  the  way  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  and  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  Those  that  came 
across  the  Pacific  almost  invariably  cruised  up  the  Strait 
of  San  Bernardino,  securing  the  fresh  provisions  so  desir- 
able to  them  after  their  long  voyage. 

The  prizes  which  they  made  of  Chinese  vessels,  passing 
Corregidor  for  Manila,  give  us  an  idea  of  how  consider- 
ably the  Spaniards  in  the  Philippines  relied  upon  China 
for  their  food.  Junks,  or  "champans,"  were  continually 
passing  Corregidor,  laden  with  chickens,  hogs,  rice,  sugar, 
and  other  comestibles.1 

The  Mexican  galleons  were  frequently  destroyed  or  cap- 
tured by  these  lurking  fleets  of  the  Dutch,  and  for  a  time 
the  route  through  the  Straits  of  San  Bernardino  had  to  be 
abandoned,  the  galleons  reaching  Manila  by  way  of  Cape 
Engano,  or  sometimes  landing  in  Cagayan,  and  more  than 
once  going  ashore  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  island,  at 
Binangonan  de  Lampon. 

The  Dutch  in  Formosa.  —  The  Dutch  also  made  repeated 
efforts  to  wrest  from  Portugal  her  settlement  and  trade  in 
China.  As.  early  as  1557  the  Portuguese  had  established 
a  settlement  on  the  island  of  Macao,  one  of  these  numerous 
islets  that  fill  the  estuary  of  the  river  of  Canton.  This  is 
the  oldest  European  settlement  in  China  and  has  been 
held  continuously  by  the  Portuguese  until  the  present 
day,  when  it  remains  almost  the  last  vestige  of  the  once 
mighty  Portuguese  empire  of  the  East.  It  was  much 
coveted  by  the  Dutch  because  of  its  importance  in  the 
trade  with  Canton  and  Fukien. 


1  "Just  before  the  naval  engagement  of  Playa  Honda,  the  Dutch 
intercepted  junks  on  the  way  to  Manila,  bringing,  amongst  their  car- 
goes of  food,  as  many  as  twelve  thousand  capons."  —  Foreman:  The 
Philippine  Islands,  p.  104. 


THE  DUTCH  AND  MORO  WARS.    1600-1663.        195 

In  1622  a  fleet  from  Java  brought  siege  to  Macao,  and, 
being  repulsed,  sailed  to  the  Pescadores  Islands,  where 
they  built  a  fort  and  established  a  post,  which  threatened 
both  the  Portuguese  trade  with  Japan  and  the  Manila 
trade  with  Amoy.  Two  years  later,  on  the  solicitation 
of  the  Chinese  government,  the  Dutch  removed  their 
settlement  to  Formosa,  where  after  some  years  they  broke 
up  the  Spanish  mission  stations  and  gained  exclusive 
possession  of  the  island.  Thus,  throughout  the  century, 
these  European  powers  harassed  and  raided  one  another, 
but  no  one  of  them  was  sufficiently  strong  to  expel  the 
others  from  the  East. 

The  Portuguese  Colonies.  —  In  1640  the  kingdom  of 
Portugal  freed  itself  from  the  domination  of  Spain.  With 
the  same  blow  Spain  lost  the  great  colonial  possessions 
that  came  to  her  with  the  attachment  of  the  Portuguese. 
"All  the  places,"  says  Zuniga,  "which  the  Portuguese  had 
in  the  Indies,  separated  themselves  from  the  crown  of 
Castile  and  recognized  as  king,  Don  Juan  of  Portugal." 
"This  same  year,"  he  adds,  "the  Dutch  took  Malacca."  l 

The  Moros.  —  Increase  of  Moro  Piracy. — During  all 
these  years  the  raids  of  the  Moros  of  Magindanao  and 
Jolo  had  never  ceased.  Their  piracies  were  almost  con- 
tinuous. There  was  no  security;  churches  were  looted, 
priests  killed,  people  borne  away  for  ransom  or  for  slavery. 
Obviously,  this  piracy  could  only  be  met  by  destroying  it 
at  its  source.  Defensive  fortifications  and  protective  fleets 
were  of  no  consequence,  when  compared  with  the  necessity 
of  subduing  the  Moro  in  his  own  lairs.  In  1628  and  1630 
punitive  expeditions  were  sent  against  Jolo,  Basilan,  and 
Mindanao,  which  drove  the  Moros  from  their  forts,  burned 
their  towns,  and  cut  down  their  groves  of  cocoanut  trees. 

1  Historia  de  Filipinos,  p.  282. 


196  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

But  such  expeditions  served  only  to  inflame  the  more  the 
wrathful  vengeance  of  the  Moro,  and  in  1635  the  govern- 
ment resolved  upon  a  change  of  policy  and  the  establish- 
ment of  a  presidio  at  Zamboanga. 

Founding  of  a  Spanish  Post  at  Zarriboanga.  —  This 
brings  us  to  a  new  phase  in  the  Moro  wars.  The  gover- 
nor, Juan  Cerezo  de  Salamanca,  was  determined  upon  the 
conquest  and  the  occupation  of  Mindanao  and  Jolo.  In 
taking  this  step,  Salamanca,  like  Corcuera,  who  succeeded 
him,  acted  under  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits.  Their  mis- 
sions in  Bohol  and  northern  Mindanao  made  them  ambi- 
tious to  reserve  for  the  ministrations  of  their  society  all 
lands  that  were  conquered  and  occupied,  south  of  the 
Bisayas. 

The  Jesuits  were  the  missionaries  on  Ternate  and 
Siao  and  wherever  in  the  Moluccas  and  Celebes  the  Span- 
ish and  Portuguese  had  established  their  power.  The 
Jesuits  had  accompanied  the  expedition  of  Rodriguez  de 
Figueroa  in  1595,  and  from  that  date  they  never  ceased 
petitioning  the  government  for  a  military  occupation  of 
these  islands  and  for  their  own  return,  as  the  missionaries 
of  these  regions.  The  Jesuits  were  brilliant  and  able 
administrators.  For  men  of  their  ambition,  Mindanao, 
with  its  rich  soil,  attractive  productions,  ajid  compara- 
tively numerous  populations,  was  a  most  enticing  field  for 
the  establishment  of  such  a  theocratic  commonwealth  as 
the  Jesuits  had  created  and  administered  in  America.1 

On  the  other  hand,  the  occupation  of  Zamboanga  was 
strenuously  opposed  by  the  other  religious  orders;  but  the 
Jesuits,  ever  remarkable  for  their  ascendancy  in  affairs  of 

1  How  attractive  the  island  appeared  and  how  well  they  knew  its 
peoples  is  revealed  by  the  accurate  descriptions  in  the  first  book  of 
Combos'  Historia  de  Mindanao  y  Jolo. 


THE  DUTCH  AND  MORO  WARS.    1600-1663.        197 

state,  were  able  to  effect  the  establishment  of  Zamboanga, 
though  they  could  not  prevent  its  abandonment  a  quarter 
of  a  century  later. 

Erection  of  the  Forts.  —  The  presidio  was  founded  in 
1635,  by  a  force  under  Don  Juan  de  Chaves.  His  army 
consisted  of  three  hundred  Spaniards  and  one  thousand 
Bisayas.  The  end  of  the  peninsula  was  swept  of  Moro 
inhabitants  and  their  towns  destroyed  by  fire.  In  June 
the  foundations  of  the  stone  fort  were  laid  under  the 
direction  of  the  Jesuit,  Father  Vera,  who  is  described  as 
being  experienced  in  military  engineering  and  architecture. 

To  supply  the  new  site  with  water,  a  ditch  was  built 
from  the  river  Tumaga,  a  distance  of  six  or  seven  miles, 
which  brought  a  copious  stream  to  the  very  walls  of  the 
fort.  The  advantage  or  failure  of  this  .expensive  fortress 
is  very  hard  to  determine.  Its  planting  was  a  partisan 
measure,  and  it  was  always  subject  to  partisan  praise  and 
partisan  blame.  Sometimes  it  seemed  to  have  checked 
the  Moros  and  sometimes  seemed  only  to  be  stirring  them 
to  fresh  anger  and  aggression. 

The  same  year  that  saw  the  establishment  of  Zam- 
boanga, Hurtado  de  Corcuera  became  governor  of  the 
Philippines.  He  was  much  under  the  influence  of  the 
Jesuits  and  confirmed  their  policy  of  conquest. 

Defeat  of  the  Moro  Pirate  Tagal.  —  A.  few  months 
later  a  notable  fleet  of  pirates,  recruited  from  Mindanao, 
Jolo,  and  Borneo,  and  headed  by  a  chieftain  named  Tagal, 
a  brother  of  the  notorious  Corralat,  sultan  of  Magin- 
danao,  went  defiantly  past  the  new  presidio  and  north- 
ward through  the  Mindoro  Sea.  For  more  than  seven 
months  they  cruised  the  Bisayas.  The  islands  of  the 
Camarines  especially  felt  their  ravages.  In  Cuyo  they 
captured  the  corregidor  and  three  friars.  Finally,  with 


198 


THE  PHILIPPINES, 


650  captives  and  rich  booty,  including  the  ornaments 
and  services  of  churches,  Tagal  turned  southward  on  his 
return. 

The  presidio  of  Zamboanga  had  prepared  to  intercept  him 

and  a  fierce  battle 

-*  -  -  •.         --    - 

took  place  off  the 
Punta  de  Flechas, 
thirty  leagues  to 
the  northeast  of 
Zamboanga.  Ac- 
cording to  the 
Spanish  writers, 
this  point  was  one 
held  sacred  b  y 
M  o  r  o  supersti- 
tions. -A  deity 
inhabited  these 
waters,  whom  the 
Moros  were  ac- 
customed to  pro- 
pitiate on  the  de- 
parture and  ar- 
rival of  their 
expeditions,  b  y 
throwing  into  the 
sea  lances  and 

Moro  Helmet  and  Coat  of  MaiL  arrOWS'     The  vic' 

tory  was  a  not- 
able one  for  the  Spanish  arms.  Tagal  and  more  than 
300  Moros  were  killed,  and  120  Christian  captives  were 
released. 

Corcuera's  Expedition  against  the  Moros  at  Lamttan. 
—  Corcuera  had  meanwhile  been  preparing  an  expedition, 


THE  DUTCH  AND  MORO  WARS.     1600-1663. 


199 


which  had  taken  on  the  character  of  a  holy  war.  Jesuit 
and  soldier  mingled  in  its  company  and  united  in  its  di- 
rection. The  Jesuit  saint,  Francis  Xavier,  was  proclaimed 
patron  of  the  expedition,  and  mass  was  celebrated  daily 
on  the  ships.  Corcuera  himself  accompanied  the  expedi- 
tion, and  at  Zamboanga,  where  they  arrived  February  22, 
1637,  he  united  a  force  of  760  Spaniards  and  many  Bi- 
sayas  and  Pampangos. 

From  Zamboanga  the  force  started  for  Lamftan,  the 
stronghold  of  Corralat,  and  the  center  of  the  power  of  the 


Moro  Sword  and  Scabbard. 

Magindanao.  It  seems  to  have  been  situated  on  the 
coast,  south  of  the  region  of  Lake  Lanao.  The  fleet 
encountered  rough  weather  and  contrary  winds  off  Punta 
de  Flechas,  which  they  attributed  to  the  influence  of  the 
Moro  demon. 

To  rid  the  locality  of  this  unholy  influence,  Padre 
Marcello,  the  Jesuit  superior,  occupied  himself  for  two 
days.  Padre  Combes  has  left  us  an  account  of  the  cere- 
mony.1 The  demon  was  dispossessed  by  exorcism.  Mass 
was  celebrated.  Various  articles,  representing  Moro  in- 


1  Historia  de  Mindanao  y  Jolo,  lib.  IV.,  chap.  7. 


200 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


fidelity,  including  arrows,  were  destroyed  and  burnt.  Holy 
relics  were  thrown  into  the  waters,  and  the  place  was 
finally  sanctified  by  baptism  in  the  name  of  Saint  Sebas- 
tian. 

On  the  14th  of  March  the  expedition  reached  Lamitan, 


Sulu  Barong  and  Sheath. 


fortified  and  defended  by  two  thousand  Moro  warriors. 
The  Spanish  force,  however,  was  overwhelming,  and  the 


Moro  Spear. 

city  was  taken  by  storm.  Here  were  captured  eight 
bronze  cannon,  twenty-seven  "  versos "  (lantakas  or 
swivel-guns),  and  over  a  hundred  muskets  and  arquebuses 
and  a  great  store  of  Moro  weapons.  Over  one  hundred 
vessels  were  destroyed,  including  a  fleet  of  Malay  mer- 
chant praus  from  Java.  Sixteen  villages  were  burned, 


THE  DUTCH  AND  MORO    WARS.     1600-1663. 


201 


and  seventy-two  Moros  were  hanged.      Corralat,  though 
pursued  and  wounded,  was  not  captured.1 

The  Conquest  of  Jolo.  —  Corcuera  returned  to  Zam- 
boanga  and  organized  an  expedition  for  the  conquest  of 
Jolo.  Although  defended  by  four  thousand  Moro  war- 
riors and  by  allies  from  Basilan  and  Tawi  Tawi,  Corcuera 
took  Jolo  after  some  months  of  siege.  The  sultan  saved 


Old  Moro  Sailing  Boat. 


himself  by  flight,  but  the  sultana  was  taken  prisoner. 
Corcuera  reconstructed  the  fort,  established  a  garrison  of 
two  hundred  Spaniards  and  an  equal  number  of  Pampan- 
gos,  left  some  Jesuit  fathers,  and,  having  nominated 


1  This  important  victory  was  commemorated  hi  a  number  of  writ- 
ings, some  of  which  have  been  reprinted  by  Retana.  See  Sucesos 
Felices,  que  por  Mar  y  Tierra  ha  dado  X.  3.  a  las  armas  EspaTiolas,  1637. 
Another  is  published  in  the  Appendix  to  Barrages',  Ilidoria  de  Guer- 
ras  Piraticas.  The  subject  is  also  fully  treated  by  Combes. 


202  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Major  Almonte  chief  of  all  the  forces  in  the  south,  returned 
in  May,  1638,  to  Manila,  with  all  the  triumph  of  a  con- 
queror. 

Almonte  continued  the  work  of  subjugation.  In  1639 
he  conquered  the  Moro  dato  of  Buhayen,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Rio  Grande,  where  a  small  presidio  was  founded.  And 
in  the  same  year  the  Jesuits  prevailed  upon  him  to  invade 
the  territory  of  the  Malanao,  now  known  as  the  Laguna 
de  Lanao.  This  expedition  was  made  from  the  north 
through  Iligan,  and  for  a  time  brought  even  this  warlike 
and  difficult  territory  under  the  authority  of  the  governor 
and  the  spiritual  administration  of  the  Jesuits. 

Loss  of  the  Spanish  Settlement  on  Formosa.  —  The  full 
military  success  of  Corcuera's  governorship  was  marred  by 
the  loss  of  Macao  and  the  capture  of  the  Spanish  settle- 
ment on  the  island  of  Formosa  by  the  Dutch.  In  the 
attempt  to  hold  Macao,  Corcuera  sent  over  the  encomen- 
dero  of  Pasig,  Don  Juan  Claudio.  The  populace  of  Macao, 
however,  rose  in  tumult,  assassinated  the  governor,  Sebas- 
tian Lobo,  and  pronounced  in  favor  of  Portugal.  Later, 
by  decree  of  the  Portuguese  governor  of  Goa,  all  the 
Spanish  residents  and  missionaries  were  expelled.  The 
Dutch  seizure  of  Formosa,  a  year  later,  has  already  been 
described. 

The  Archipelago  and  the  Religious  Orders.  —  During 
these  decades,  conflict  was  almost  incessant  between  the 
archbishop  of  Manila  and  the  regular  orders.  In  the 
Philippines  the  regulars  were  the  parish  curates,  and  the 
archbishop  desired  that  all  matters  of  their  curacy,  touch- 
ing the  administration  of  the  sacraments  and  other  parish 
duties,  should  be  subject  to  the  direction  of  the  bishops. 
This  question  of  the  "diocesan  visit"  was  fought  over 
for  nearly  two  hundred  years. 


THE  DUTCH  AND   MORO  WARS.     1600-1663.         203 

The  Governor  and  the  Archbishop.  —  Even  more  serious 
to  the  colony  were  the  conflicts  that  raged  between  the 
governor-general  and  the  archbishop.  All  the  points  of 
dissension  between  Church  and  State,  which  vexed  the 
Middle  Ages,  broke  out  afresh  in  the  Philippines.  The 
appointment  of  religious  officers;  the  distribution  of  reve-i| 
nue;  the  treatment  of  the  natives;  the  claim  of  the  church! 
to  offer  asylum  to  those  fleeing  the  arm  of  the  law;  its 
claims  of  jurisdiction,  in  its  ecclesiastical  courts,  over  a 
large  class  of  civil  offenses  —  these  disputes  and  many 
others,  occasioned  almost  incessant  discord  between  the 
heads  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authority. 

The  "  Residencia."  —  We  have  seen  that -the  power  of 
the  governor  was  in  fact  very  large.  Theoretically,  the 
Audiencia  was  a  limit  upon  his  authority;  but  hi  fact  the 
governor  was  usually  the  president  of  this  body,  and  the 
oidores  were  frequently  his  abettors  and  rarely  his  oppo- 
nents. At  the  end  of  each  governor's  rule  there  took 
place  a  characteristic  Spanish  institution,  called  the  "  Resi- 
dencia." This  was  a  court  held  by  the  newly  elected 
governor,  for  an  examination  into  the  conduct  of  his 
predecessor.  Complaints  of  every  description  were  re- 
ceived, and  often,  in  the  history  of  the  Philippines,  one 
who  had  ruled  the  archipelago  almost  as  an  independent 
monarch  found  himself,  at  the  end  of  his  office,  ruined,! 
and  in  chains. 

It  was  upon  the  occasion  of  the  Residencia  that  the 
ecclesiastical  powers,  after  a  governorship  stormy  with 
disputes,  exercised  their  power  for  revenge.  Unquestion- 
ably many  a  governor,  despite  his  actual  power,  facing, 
as  he  did,  the  Residencia  at  the  termination  of  his  rule, 
made  peace  with  his  enemies  and  yielded  to  their  de- 
mands. 


204  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Corcuera  had  continuous  troubles  with  the  archbishop 
and  with  the  religious  orders  other  than  the  Jesuits.  In 
1644,  when  his  successor,  Fajardo,  relieved  him,  the  Fran- 
ciscans, Augustinians,  and  Recollects  procured  his  imprison- 
ment and  the  confiscation  of  his  property.  For  five  years, 
the  conqueror  of  the  Moros  lay  a  prisoner  in  the  fortresses 
of  Santiago  and  Cavite,  when  he  was  pardoned  by  the 
Council  of  the  Indies,  and  appointed  governor  of  the  Can- 
aries by  the  king. 

Weakening  of  the  Governor's  Power,  — This  power 
of  private  and  religious  classes  to  intimidate  and  overawe 
the  responsible  head  of  the  Philippine  government  was  an 
abuse  which  continued  to  the  very  close  of  the  Spanish 
rule.  This,  together  with  the  relatively  short  term  of  the 
governor's  office,  his  natural  desire  to  avoid  trouble,  his 
all  too  frequent  purpose  of  amassing  a  fortune  rather  than 
maintaining  the  dignity  of  his  position  and  advancing  the 
interests  of  the  Islands,  combined  decade  after  decade  to 
make  the  spiritual  authority  more  powerful.  In  the  end  the 
religious  orders,  with  their  great  body  of  members,  their 
hold  upon  the  Filipinos,  their  high  influence  at  the  court, 
and  finally  their  great  landed  wealth,  governed  the  Islands. 

The  Educational  Work  of  the  Religious  Orders-  —  In 
any  criticism  of  the  evils  connected  with  their  administra- 
tion of  the  Philippines,  one  must  not  fail  to  recognize  the 
many  achievements  of  the  missionary  friars  that  were 
worthy.  To  the  Dominicans  and  the  Jesuits  is  due  the 
establishment  of  institutions  of  learning.  The  Jesuits  in 
1601  had  planted  their  College  of  San  Jose.  The  Domini- 
cans, here  as  in  Europe,  the  champions  of  orthodox  learn- 
ing, had  their  own  institution,  the  College  of  Santo  Tomas, 
inaugurated  in  1619,  and  were  the  rivals  of  the  Jesuits 
for  the  privilege  of  giving  higher  instruction. 


THE  DUTCH  AND  MORO  WARS.    1600-1663.        205 

In  1645  the  pope  granted  to  the  Dominicans  the  right  to 
bestow  higher  degrees,  and  their  college  became  the  "  Royal 
and  Pontifical  University  of  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas." 
This  splendid  name  breathes  that  very  spirit  of  the  Middle 
Ages  which  the  Dominican  order  strove  to  perpetuate  in 
the  Philippines  down  to  modern  days.1  Dominicans  also 
founded  the  College  of  San  Juan  de  Letran,  as  a  prepara- 
tory school  to  the  University. 

We  should  not  pass  over  the  educational  work  of  the 
religious  orders  without  mention  of  the  early  printing- 
plants  and  their  publications.  The  missionary  friars  were 
famous  printers,  and  in  the  Philippines,  as  well  as  in  Amer- 
ica, some  noble  volumes  were  produced  by  their  handi- 
craft. 

Founding  of  Hospitals  by  the  Franciscans.  —  Nor 
had  the  Franciscans  in  the  Philippines  neglected  the  fun- 
damental purpose  of  their  foundation,  —  that  of  ministra- 
tion to  the  sick  and  unprotected.  A  narrative  of  then* 
order,  written  in  1649,  gives  a  long  list  of  their  beneficent 
foundations.2  Besides  the  hospital  of  Manila,  they  had  an 
infirmary  at  Cavite  for  the  native  mariners  and  ship- 
builders, a  hospital  at  Los  Banos,  another  in  the  city  of 
Nueva  Cdceres.  Lay  brethren  were  attached  to  many  of 
the  convents  as  nurses. 

In  1633  a  curious  occurrence  led  to  the  founding  of  the 
leper  hospital  of  San  Lazaro.  The  emperor  of  Japan,  in 
a  probably  ironical  mood,  sent  to  Manila  a  shipload  of 
Japanese  afflicted  with  this  unfortunate  disease.  These 
people  were  mercifully  received  by  the  Franciscans,  and 


1  The  king  did  not  confer  the  title  of  "Royal"  until  1735,  although 
the  University  \v.-is  taken  under  his  protection  in  1680. 

2  Entrada  de  la  Seraphica  Religion,  de  Nuestro  P.  S.  Francisco  en 
las  Islas  Filipinos,  Retana,  vol.  I. 


206  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

cared  for  in  a  home,  which  became  the  San  Lazaro  hos- 
pital for  lepers. 

Life  and  Progress  of  the  Filipinos.  —  Few  sources  exist 
that  can  show  us  the  life  and  progress  of  the  Filipino 
people  during  these  decades.  Christianity,  as  introduced 
by  the  missionary  friars,  was  generally  successful,  and 
yet  there  were  relapses  in.to  heathenism.  Old  religious 
leaders  and  priestesses  roused  up  from  time  to  time,  and 
incited  the  natives  to  rebellion  against  their  new  spiritual 
masters.  The  payment  of  tribute  and  the  labor  required 
for  the  building  of  churches  often  drove  the  people  into 
the  mountains. 

Religious  Revolt  at  Bohol  and  Leyte.  —  In  1621  a 
somewhat  serious  revolt  took  place  on  Bohol.  The  Jes- 
uits who  administered  the  island  were  absent  in  Cebu, 
attending  the  fiestas  on  the  canonization  of  Saint  Francis 
Xavier.  The  whisper  was  raised  that  the  old  heathen 
deity,  Diwata,  was  at  hand  to  assist  in  the  expulsion  of 
the  Spaniards.  The  island  rose  in  revolt,  except  the  two 
towns  of  Lobok  and  Baklayan.  Four  towns  were  burned, 
the  churches  sacked,  and  the  sacred  images  speared.  The 
revolt  spread  to  Leyte,  where  it  was  headed  by  the  old 
dato,  Bankao  of  Limasaua,  who  had  sworn  friendship  with 
Legazpi.  This  insurrection  was  put  down  by  the  alcalde 
mayor  of  Cebu  and  the  Filipino  leaders  were  hanged.  On 
Leyte,  Bankao  was  speared  in  battle,  and  one  of  the 
heathen  priests  suffered  the  penalty  prescribed  by  the 
Inquisition  for  heresy  —  death  by  burning. 

Revolt  of  the  Pampangos.  —  The  heavy  drafting  of 
natives  to  fell  trees  and  build  the  ships  for  the  Spanish 
naval  expeditions  and  the  Acapulco  trade  was  also  a 
cause  for  insurrection.  In  1660  a  thousand  Pampangos 
were  kept  cutting  in  the  forests  of  that  province  alone 


THE  DUTCH  AND  MORO  WARS.     1600-1663.         207 

Sullen  at  their  heavy  labor  and  at  the  harshness  of  their 
overseers,  these  natives  rose  in  revolt.  The  sedition 
spread  to  Pangasinan,  Zambales,  and  Ilokos,  and  it  re- 
quired the  utmost  efforts  of  the  Spanish  forces  on  land 
and  water  to  suppress  the  rebellion. 

Uprising  of  the  Chinese.  —  In  spite  of  the  terrible  mas- 
sacre, that  had  been  visited  upon  the  Chinese  at  the 
beginning  of  the  century,  they  had  almost  immediately 
commenced  returning  not  only  as  merchants,  but  as  colo- 
nists. The  early  restrictions  upon  their  life  must  have  been 
relaxed,  for  in  1639  there  were  more  than  thirty  thousand 
living  in  the  Islands,  many  of  them  cultivating  lands  at 
Calamba  and  at  other  points  on  the  Laguna  de  Bay. 

In  that  year  a  rebellion  broke  out,  in  which  the  Chinese 
in  Manila  participated.  They  seized  the  church  of  San 
Pedro  Macati,  on  the  Pasig,  and  fortified  themselves. 
From  there  they  were  routed  by  a  combined  Filipino  and 
Spanish  force.  The  Chinese  then  broke  up  into  small 
bands,  which  scattered  through  the  country,  looting  and 
murdering,  but  being  pursued  and  cut  to  pieces  by  the 
Filipinos.  For  Qye  months  this  pillage  and  massacre  went 
on,  until  seven  thousand  Chinese  were  destroyed.  By 
the  loss  of  these  agriculturists  and  laborers  Manila  was 
reduced  to  great  distress. 

Activity  of  the  Moro  Pirates.  — The  task  of  the  Span- 
iards in  controlling  the  Moro  datos  continued  to  be 
immensely  difficult.  During  the  years  following  the 
successes  of  Corcuera  and  Almonte,  the  Moros  were  con- 
tinually plotting.  Aid  was  furnished  from  Borneo  and 
Celebes,  and  they  were  further  incited  by  the  Dutch. 
In  spite  of  the  vigilance  of  Zamboanga,  small  piratical 
excursions  continually  harassed  the  Bisayas  and  the  Cam- 
arines. 


208  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Continued  Conflicts  with  the  Dutch.  —  The  Dutch,  too, 
from  time  to  time  showed  themselves  in  Manila.  In  1646 
a  squadron  attacked  Zamboanga,  and  then  came  north  to 
Luzon.  The  Spanish  naval  strength  was  quite  unprepared; 
but  two  galleons,  lately  arrived  from  Acapulco,  were  fitted 
with  heavy  guns,  Dominican  friars  took  their  places 
among  the  gunners,  and,  under  the  protection  of  the 
Virgin  of  the  Rosary,  successfully  encountered  the  enemy. 

A  year  later  a  fleet  of  twelve  vessels  entered  Manila  Bay, 
and  nearly  succeeded  in  taking  Cavite.  Failing  in  this, 
they  landed  in  Bataan  province,  and  for  some  time  held 
the  coast  of  Manila  Bay  in  the  vicinity  of  Abucay.  The 
narrative  of  Franciscan  missions  in  1649,  above  cited,  gives 
town  after  town  in  southern  Luzon,  where  church  and 
convent  had  been  burned  by  the  Moros  or  the  Dutch. 

The  Abandonment  of  Zamboanga  and  the  Moluccas.  — 
The  threat  of  the  Dutch  made  the  maintenance  of  the 
presidio  of  Zamboanga  very  burdensome.  In  1656  the 
administration  of  the  Moluccas  was  united  with  that  of 
Mindanao,  and  the  governor  of  the  former,  Don  Francisco 
de  Esteybar,  was  transferred  from  Ternate  to  Zamboanga 
and  made  lieutenant-governor  and  captain-general  of  all 
the  provinces  of  the  south. 

Six  years  later,  the  Moluccas,  so  long  coveted  by  the 
Spaniards,  and  so  slowly  won  by  them,  together  with 
Zamboanga,  were  wholly  abandoned,  and  to  the  Spice 
Islands  the  Spaniards  were  never  to  return.  This  sudden 
retirement  from  their  southern  possessions  was  not,  how- 
ever, occasioned  by  the  incessant  restlessness  of  the  Moros 
nor  by  the  plottings  of  the  Dutch.  It  was  due  to  a  threat 
of  danger  from  the  north. 

Koxinga  the  Chinese  Adventurer.  —  In  1644,  China 
was  conquered  by  the  Manchus.  Pekin  capitulated  at 


THE  DUTCH  AND  MORO  WARS.    1600-1663.        209 

once  and  the  Ming  dynasty  was  overthrown,  but  it  was 
only  by  many  years  of  fighting  that  the  Manchus  over- 
came the  Chinese  of  the  central  and  southern  provinces. 
These  were  years  of  turbulance,  revolt,  and  piracy. 

More  than  one  Chinese  adventurer  rose  to  a  romantic 
position  during  this  disturbed  time.  One  of  these  adven- 
turers, named  It  Coan,  had  been  a  poor  fisherman  of 
Chio.  He  had  lived  in  Macao,  where  he  had  been  con- 
verted to  Christianity,  and  had  been  a  cargador,  or  cargo- 
bearer,  in  Manila.  He  afterwards  went  to  Japan,  and 
engaged  hi  trade.  From  these  humble  and  laborious 
beginnings,  like  many  another  of  his  persistent  country- 
men, he  gained  great  wealth,  which  on  the  conquest  of  the 
Manchus  he  devoted  to  piracy. 

His  son  was  the  notorious  Kue-Sing,  or  Koxinga,  who 
for  years  resisted  the  armies  of  the  Manchus,  and  main- 
tained an  independent  power  over  the  coasts  of  Fukien 
and  Chekiang.  About  1660  the  forces  of  the  Manchus 
became  too  formidable  for  him  to  longer  resist  them  upon 
the  mainland,  and  Koxinga  determined  upon  the  capture 
of  Formosa  and  the  transference  of  his  kingdom  to  that 
island. 

For  thirty-eight  years  this  island  had  been  dominated 
by  the  Dutch,  whose  fortresses  commanded  the  channel  of 
the  Pescadores.  The  colony  was  regarded  as  an  impor- 
tant one  by  the  Dutch  colonial  government  at  Batavia. 
The  city  of  Tai-wan,  on  the  west  coast,  was  a  con- 
siderable center  of  trade.  It  was  strongly  protected  by 
the  fortress  of  Zealand,  and  had  a  garrison  of  twenty- 
two  hundred  Dutch  soldiers.  After  months  of  fighting, 
Koxinga,  with  an  overpowering  force  of  Chinese,  com- 
pelled the  surrender  of  the  Hollanders  and  the  beautiful 
island  passed  into  his  power. 


210  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

A  Threatened  Invasion  of  the  Philippines- — Exalted 
by  his  success  against  European  arms,  Koxinga  resolved 
upon  the  conquest  of  the  Philippines.  He  summoned  to 
his  service  the  Italian  Dominican  missionary,  Ricci,  who 
had  been  living  in  the  province  of  Fukien,  and  -in  the 
spring  of  1662  dispatched  him  as  an  ambassador  to  the 
governor  of  the  Philippines,  to  demand  the  submission  of 
the  archipelago. 

Manila  was  thrown  into  a  terrible  panic  by  this  de- 
mand, and  indeed  no  such  danger  had  threatened  the 
Spanish  in  the  Philippines  since  the  invasion  of  Lima- 
hong.  The  Chinese  conqueror  had  an  innumerable  army, 
and  his  armament,  stores,  and  navy  had  been  greatly 
augmented  by  the  surrender  of  the  Dutch.  The  Span- 
iards, however,  were  united  on  resistance.  The -governor, 
Don  Sabiniano  Manrique  de  Lara,  returned  a  defiant 
answer  to  Koxinga,  and  the  most  radical  measures  were 
adopted  to  place  the  colony  in  a  state  of  defense. 

All  Chinese  were  ordered  immediately  to  leave  the 
Islands.  Fearful  of  massacre,  these  wretched  people 
again  broke  out  in  rebellion,  and  assaulted  the  city. 
Many  were  slain,  and  other  bands  wandered  off  into  the 
mountains,  where  they  perished  at  the  hands  of  the  na- 
tives. Others,  escaping  by  frail  boats,  joined  the  Chinese 
colonists  on  Formosa.  Churches  and  convents  in  the  sub- 
urbs of  Manila,  which  might  afford  shelter  to  the  assailant, 
were  razed  to  the  ground.  More  than  all  this,  the  Moluccas 
were  forsaken,  never  again  to  be  recovered  by  Spaniards; 
and  the  presidios  of  Zamboanga  and  Cuyo,  which  served 
as  a  kind  of  bridle  on  the  Moros  of  Jolo  and  Mindanao, 
were  abandoned.  All  Spanish  troops  were  concentrated 
in  Manila,  fortifications  were  rebuilt,  and  the  population 
waited  anxiously  for  the  attack.  But  the  blow  never  fell. 


THE  DUTCH  AND  MORO  WARS.    1600-1663.  211 

Before  Ricci  arrived  at  Tai-wan,  Koxinga  was  dead,  and 
the  peril  of  Chinese  invasion  had  passed. 

Effects  of  These  Events.  —  But  the  Philippines  had 
suffered  irretrievable  loss.  Spanish  prestige  was  gone. 
Manila  was  no  longer,  as  she  had  been  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  century,  the  capital  of  the  East.  Spanish 
sovereignty  was  again  confined  to  Luzon  and  the 
Bisayas.  The  Chinese  trade,  on  which  rested  the  economic 
prosperity  of  Manila,  had  once  again  been  ruined.  For 
a  hundred  years  the  history  of  the  Philippines  is  a  dull 
monotony,  quite  unrelieved  by  any  heroic  activity  or  the 
presence  of  noble  character.1 

1  The  Jesuits,  on  retiring  with  the  Spanish  forces  from  the  Moluc- 
cas, brought  from  Ternate  a  colony  of  their  converts.  These  people 
were  settled  at  Marigondon,  on  the  south  shore  of  Manila  Bay,  where 
their  descendants  can  still  be  distinguished  from  the  surrounding 
Tagalog  population. 


CHAPTER  X. 

A  CENTURY  OF  OBSCURITY  AND  DECLINE. 
1663-1762. 

Political  Decline  of  the  Philippines.  —  For  the  hundred 
years  succeeding  the  abandonment  of  the  Moluccas,  the 
Philippines  lost  all  political  significance  as  a  colony.  From 
almost  every  standpoint  they  were  profitless  to  Spain. 
There  were  continued  deficits,  which  had  to  be  made 
good  from  the  Mexican  treasury.  The  part  of  Spain  in 
the  conquest  of  the  East  was  over,  and  the  Philippines 
became  little  more  than  a  great  missionary  establish- 
ment, presided  over  by  the  religious  orders. 

Death  of  Governor  Salcedo  by  the  Inquisition.  —  In 
1663,  Lara  was  succeeded  by  Don  Diego  de  Salcedo.  On 
his  arrival,  Manila  had  high  hopes  of  him,  which  were 
speedily  disappointed.  He  loaded  the  Acapulco  galleon 
with  his  own  private  merchandise,  and  then  dispatched  it 
earlier  than  was  usual,  before  the  cargoes  of  the  merchants 
were  ready.  He  engaged  in  a  wearisome  strife  with  the 
archbishop,  and  seems  to  have  worried  the  ecclesiastic, 
who  was  aged  and  feeble,  into  his  grave.  At  the  end  of 
a  few  years  he  was  hated  by  every  one,  and  a  conspiracy 
against  him  was  formed  which  embraced  the  religious, 
the  army,  the  civil  officials,  and  the  merchants.  Beyond 
the  reach  of  the  power  of  ordinary  plotters,  he  fell  a  vic- 
tim to  the  commissioner  of  the  Inquisition. 

The  Spanish  Inquisition,  which  wrought  such  cruelty 
and  misery  in  the  Peninsula,  was  carried  also  to  the 
Spanish  colonies.  As  we  have  seen,  it  was  primarily  the 
:  ;.::"tion  of  the  Dominican  order  to  administer  the  institu- 

212 


A  CENTURY  OF  OBSCURITY.    1663-1762.  213 

tion.  The  powers  exercised  by  an  inquisitor  can  scarcely 
be  understood  at  the  present  day.  His  methods  were 
secret,  the  charges  were  not  made  public,  the  whole 
proceedings  were  closeted,  and  yet  so  great  were  the 
powers  of  this  court  that  none  could  resist  its  authority, 
or  inquire  into  its  actions.  Spain  forbade  any  heretics, 
Jews,  or  Moors  going  to  the  colonies,  and  did  the  utmost 
to  prevent  heresy  abroad.  She  also  established  in  Amer- 
ica the  Inquisition  itself.  Fortunately,  it  never  attained 
the  importance  in  the  Philippines  that  it  had  in  Spam. 
In  the  Philippines  there  was  no  "Tribunal,"  the  institu- 
tion being  represented  solely  by  a  commissioner. 

Death  of  the  Governor.  —  In  1667,  when  the  unpop- 
ularity of  Governor  Salcedo  was  at  its  height,  this  com- 
missioner professed  to  discover  in  him  grounds  of  heresy 
from  the  fact  that  he  had  been  born  hi  Flanders,  and 
decided  to  avenge  the  Church  by  encompassing  his  ruin. 
By  secret  arrangement,  the  master  of  the  camp  withdrew 
the  guard  from  the  palace,  and  the  commissioner,  with 
several  confederates,  gained  admission.  The  door  of  the 
governor's  room  was  opened  by  an  old  woman,  who  had 
been  terrified  into  complicity,  and  the  governor  was  seized 
sleeping,  with  his  arms  lying  at  the  head  of  his  bed. 

The  commissioner  informed  the  governor  that  he  was  a 
prisoner  of  the  Holy  Office.  He  was  taken  to  the  convent 
of  the  Franciscans.  Here  he  was  kept  in  chains  until  he 
could  be  sent  to  Mexico,  to  appear  before  the  Tribunal 
there.  The  government  in  Mexico  annulled  the  arrest  of 
the  commissioner,  but  Salcedo  died  at  sea  on  the  return 
of  the  vessel  to  the  Philippines  in  1669. 

Colonization  of  the  Ladrone  Islands.  —  In  1668  a  Jesuit 
mission  under  Padre  Diego  Luis  de  Sanvitores  was  estab- 
lished on  the  Ladrones,  the  first  of  the  many  mission 


214  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

stations,  both  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant,  in  the  South 
Pacific.  The  islands  at  that  time  were  well  populated  and 
fertile,  and  had  drawn  the  enthusiasm  of  Padre  Sanvitores 
in  1662  when  he  first  sailed  to  the  Philippines. 

The  hostility  of  the  Manchus  in  China,  the  Japanese  per- 
secutions, and  the  abandonment  of  Mindanao  had  closed 
many  mission  fields,  and  explains  the  eagerness  with  which 
the  Jesuits  sought  the  royal  permission  to  Christianize  these 
islands,  which  had  been  so  constantly  visited  by  Spanish 
ships  but  never  before  colonized.  With  Padre  Sanvftores 
and  his  five  Jesuit  associates  were  a  number  of  Christian 
Filipino  catechists. 

Settlement  of  Guam.  —  The  mission  landed  at  Guam, 
and  was  favorably  received.  Society  among  these  island- 
ers was  divided  into  castes.  The  chiefs  were  known  as 
chamorri,  which  has  led  to  the  natives  of  the  Ladrones 
being  called  "Chamorros."  A  piece  of  ground  was  given 
the  Jesuits  for  a  church  at  the  principal  town  called 
Agadna  (Agaiia),  and  here  also  a  seminary  was  built  for 
the  instruction  of  young  men.  The  queen  regent  of 
Spain,  Maria  of  Austria,  gave  an  annual  sum  to  this  school, 
and  in  her  honor  the  Jesuits  changed  the  name  of  the 
islands  to  the  Marianas.  The  Jesuits  preached  on  eleven 
inhabited  islands  of  the  group,  and  in  a  year's  time  had 
baptized  thirteen  thousand  islanders  and  given  instruc- 
tion to  twenty  thousand. 

Troubles  with  the  Natives  at  Guam.  —  This  first 
year  was  the  most  successful  in  the  history  of  the  mission. 
Almost  immediately  after,  the  Jesuits  angered  the  islanders 
by  compulsory  conversions.  There  were  quarrels  in  several 
places,  and  priests,  trying  to  baptize  children  against  the 
wishes  of  their  parents,  were  killed.  In  1670  the  Spaniards 
were  attacked,  and  obliged  to  fortify  themselves  at  Agana. 


A    CENTURY  OF  OBSCURITY.     1663-1762.  215 

The  Jesuits  had  a  guard  of  a  Spanish  captain  and 
about  thirty  Spanish  and  Filipino  soldiers,  who,  after 
some  slaughter  of  the  natives,  compelled  them  to  sue  for 
peace.  The  conditions  imposed  by  the  Jesuits  were  that 
the  natives  should  attend  mass  and  festivals,  have  their 
children  baptized,  and  send  them  to  be  catechised.  The 
hatred  of  the  natives  was  unabated,  however,  and  in  1672 
Sanvitores  was  killed  by  them.  His  biographer  claims 
that  at  his  death  he  had  baptized  nearly  fifty  thousand  of 
these  islanders.1 

Depopulation  of  the  Ladrone  Islands.  —  About  1680 
a  governor  was  sent  to  the  islands,  and  they  were  or- 
ganized as  a  dependency  of  Spain.  The  policy  of  the 
governors  and  the  Jesuits  was  conversion  by  the  sword. 
The  natives  were  persecuted  from  island  to  island,  and  in 
the  history  of  European  settlements  there  is  hardly  one 
that  had  more  miserable  consequences  to  the  inhabitants. 
Disease  was  introduced  and  swept  off  large  numbers. 
Others  fell  resisting  the  Spaniards,  and  an  entire  island 
was  frequently  depopulated  by  order  of  the  governor,  or 
the  desire  of  the  Jesuits  to  have  the  natives  brought  to 
Guam.  Many,  with  little  doubt,  fled  to  other  archipelagoes. 

If  we  can  trust  the  Jesuit  accounts,  there  were  in  the 
whole  group  one  hundred  thousand  inhabitants  when  the 
Spaniards  arrived.  A  generation  saw  them  almost  ex- 
tinct. Dampier,  who  touched  at  Guam  in  1686,  says 
then  that  on  the  island,  where  the  Spaniards  had  found 
thirty  thousand  people,  there  were  not  above  one  hundred 
natives.  In  1716  and  1721  other  voyagers  announced  the 
number  of  inhabitants  on  Guam  at  two  thousand,  but 
only  one  other  island  of  the  group  was  populated.  When 

1  See  the  account  of  the  ' '  Settlement  of  the  Ladrones  by  the  Span- 
iards," in  Burner's  Voyages  in  the  Pacific,  vol.  III. 


216  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Anson  in  1742  visited  Guam,  the  number  had  risen  to 
four  thousand,  and  there  were  a  few  hundred  inhabitants 
on  Rota;  but  these  seem  to  have  been  the  whole  popu- 
lation. The  original  native  population  certainly  very 
nearly  touched  extinction.  The  islands  were  from  time 
to  time  colonized  from  the  Philippines,  and  the  present 
population  is  very  largely  of  Filipino  blood. 

Conflicts  between  Governor  and  Archbishop.  —  Mean- 
while, in  the  Philippines  the  conflict  of  the  governor  with 
the  archbishop  and  the  friars  continued.  The  conduct  of 
both  sides  was  selfish  and  outrageous.  In  1683  the 
actions  of  Archbishop  Pardo  became  so  violent  and  sedi- 
tious that  the  Audiencia  decreed  his  banishment  to  Pan- 
gasinan  or  Cagayan.  He  was  taken  by  force  to  Lingayan, 
where  he  was  well  accommodated  but  kept  under  surveil- 
lance. The  Dominicans  retaliated  by  excommunication, 
and  the  Audiencia  thereupon  banished  the  provincial  of 
the  order  from  the  Islands,  and  sent  several  other  friars 
to  Mariveles. 

But  the  year  following,  Governor  Vargas  was  relieved 
by  the  arrival  of  his  successor,  who  was  favorable  to 
the  ecclesiastical  side  of  the  controversy.  The  archbishop 
returned  and  assumed  a  high  hand.  He  suspended  and 
excommunicated  on  all  sides.  The  oidores  were  banished 
from  the  city,  and  all  died  in  exile  in  remote  portions  of 
the  archipelago.  The  ex-governor-general,  Vargas,  being 
placed  under  the  spiritual  ban,  sued  for  pardon  and  begged 
that  his  repentance  be  recognized. 

The  archbishop  sentenced  him  to  stand  daily  for  the 
space  of  four  months  at  the  entrances  to  the  churches  of 
the  city  and  of  the  Parian,  and  in  the  thronged  quarter  of 
Binondo,  attired  in  the  habit  of  a  penitent,  with  a  rope 
about  his  neck  and  carrying  a  lighted  candle  in  his  hand. 


A   CENTURY  OF  OBSCURITY.    166S-1762.  217 

He  was,  however,  able  to  secure  a  mitigation  of  this 
sentence,  but  was  required  to  live  absolutely  alone  in  a 
hut  on  an  island  in  the  Pasig  River.  He  was  sent  a 
prisoner  to  Mexico  hi  1689,  but  died  upon  the  voyage. 

The  various  deans  and  canons  who  had  concurred  in  the 
archbishop's  banishment,  as  well  as  other  religious  with 
whom  the  prelate  had  .had  dissensions,  were  imprisoned 
or  exiled.  The  bodies  of  two  oidores  were,  on  their  death 
and  after  their  burial,  disinterred  and  their  bones  pro- 
faned. 

Degeneration  of  the  Colony  under  Church  Rule.  — 
Archbishop  Pardo  died  in  1689,  but  the  strife  and  con- 
fusion which  had  been  engendered  continued.  There  were 
quarrels  between  the  archbishop  and  the  friars,  between 
the  prelate  and  the  governor.  All  classes  seem  to  have 
shared  the  bitterness  and  the  hatred  of  these  unhappy 
dissensions. 

The  moral  tone  of  the  whole  colony  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  lowered.  Corruption 
flourished  everywhere,  and  the  vigor  of  the  administra- 
tion decayed.  Violence  went  unrebuked,  and  the  way 
was  open  for  the  deplorable  tragedy  in  which  this  strife 
of  parties  culminated.  Certainly  no  governor  could  have' 
been  more  supine,  and  shown  greater  incapacity  and 
weakness  of  character,  than  the  one  who  ruled  in  the  tune 
of  Archbishop  Pardo. 

Improvements  Made  by  Governor  Bustamante.  —  En- 
richment of  the  Treasury  —  In  the  year  1717,  however, 
came  a  governor  of  a  different  type,  Fernando  Manuel  de 
Bustamante.  He  was  an  old  soldier,  stern  of  character 
and  severe  in  his  measures.  He  found  the  treasury  robbed 
and  exhausted.  Nearly  the  whole  population  of  Manila 
were  in  debt  to  the  public  funds.  Bustamante  ordered 


218  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

these  amounts  paid,  and  to  compel  their  collection  he 
attached  the  cargo  of  silver  arriving  by  the  galleon  from 
Acapulco.  This  cargo  was  owned  by  the  religious  com- 
panies, officials,  and  merchants,  all  of  whom  were  in- 
debted to  the  government.  In  one  year  of  his  vigorous 
administration  he  raised  the  sum  of  three  hundred  thou- 
sand pesos  for  the  treasury. 

With  sums  of  money  again  at  the  disposal  of  the  state, 
Bustamante  attempted  to  revive  the  decayed  prestige  and 
commerce  of  the  Islands. 

Refounding  of  Zamboanga. — In  1718  he  refounded  and 
rebuilt  the  presidio  of  Zamboanga.  Not  a  year  had  passed, 
since  its  abandonment  years  before,  that  the  pirates  from 
Borneo  and  Mindanao  had  failed  to  ravage  the  Bisayas. 
The  Jesuits  had  petitioned  regularly  for  its  reestablish- 
ment,  and  in  1712  the  king  had  decreed  its  reoccupation. 
The  citadel  was  rebuilt  on  an  elaborate  plan  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  engineer,  Don  Juan  Sicarra.  Besides  the  usual 
barracks,  storehouses,  and  arsenals,  there  were,  within  the 
walls,  a  church,  hospital,  and  cuartel  for  the  Pampangan 
soldiers.  Sixty-one  cannon  were  mounted  upon  the  de- 
fenses. Upon  the  petition  of  the  Recollects,  Bustamante 
also  established  a  presidio  at  Labo,  at  the  southern  point 
of  the  island  of  Palawan,  whose  coasts  were  attacked  by 
the  Moros  from  Sulu  and  Borneo. 

Treaty  with  Slam.  —  In  the  same  year  he  sent  an  em- 
bassy to  Siam,  with  the  idea  of  stimulating  the  commerce 
which  had  flourished  a  century  before.  The  reception  of 
this  embassy  was  most  flattering;  a  treaty  of  peace,  friend- 
ship, and  commerce  was  made,  and  on  ground  ceded  to 
the  Spaniards  was  begun  the  erection  of  a  factory. 

Improvements  in  the  City  of  Manila.  —  How  far  this 
brave  and  determined  man  might  have  revived  the  colony 


A   CENTURY  OF  OBSCURITY.    166S-176S.  219 

it  is  impossible  to  say.  The  population  of  Manila,  both 
ecclesiastical  and  civil,  was  at  this  time  so  sunk  in  cor- 
ruption and  so  degenerate  as  to  make  almost  impossible 
any  recuperation  except  under  the  rule  of  a  man  equally 
determined  as  Bustamante,  but  ruling  for  a  long  period  of 
time.  He  had  not  hesitated  to  order  investigations  into 
the  finances  of  the  Islands,  which  disclosed  defalcations 
amounting  to  seven  hundred  thousand  pesos.  He  fear- 
lessly arrested  the  defaulters,  no  matter  what  their  station. 
The  whole  city  was  concerned  in  these  peculations,  conse- 
quently the  utmost  fear  and  apprehension  existed  on  all 
sides;  and  Bustamante,  hated  as  well  as  dreaded,  was 
compelled  to  enforce  his  reforms  single-handed. 

His  Murder. —  He  was  opposed  by  the  friars  and  defied 
by  the  archbishop,  but,  notwithstanding  ecclesiastical  con- 
demnation, he  went  to  the  point  of  ordering  the  arrest  of 
the  prelate.  The  city  rose  in  sedition,  and  a  mob,  headed 
by  friars,  proceeded  to  the  palace  of  the  governor,  broke 
in  upon  him,  and,  as  he  faced  them  alone  and  without 
support,  killed  him  in  cold  blood  (October  11,  1719). 

The  archbishop  proclaimed  himself  governor  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Audiencia.  The  oidores  and  officials  who  had 
been  placed  under  arrest  by  Bustamante  were  released, 
and  his  work  overthrown.  The  new  government  had 
neither  the  courage  nor  the  inclination  to  continue  Busta- 
mante's  policy,  and  in  1720  the  archbishop  called  a  coun- 
cil of  war,  which  decreed  the  abandonment  of  the  fort  at 
Labo. 

When  the  news  of  this  murder  reached  Spain,  the  king 
ordered  an  investigation  and  the  punishment  of  the  guilty, 
and  in  1721  Governor  Campo  arrived  to  put  these  man- 
dates into  execution.  The  culprits,  however,  were  so 
high  and  so  influential  that  the  governor  did  not  dare 


220  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

proceed  against  them;  and  although  the  commands  of  the 
king  were  reiterated  in  1724,  the  assassins  of  Bustamante 
were  never  brought  to  justice. 

Treaty  with  the  Sultan  of  Jolo.  —  In  spite  of  the  cow- 
ardly policy  of  the  successors  of  Bustamante,  the  presidio 
of  Zamboanga  was  not  abandoned.  So  poorly  was  it  ad- 
ministered, however,  that  it  was  not  effective  to  prevent 
Moro  piracy,  and  the  attacks  upon  the  Bisayas  and  Cala- 
mianes  continued.  In  1721  a  treaty  was  formed  with 
the  sultan  of  Jolo  providing  for  trade  between  Manila  and 
Jolo,  the  return  or  ransom  of  captives,  and  the  restitution 
to  Spain  of  the  island  of  Basilan. 

The  Moro  Pirates  of  Tawi  Tawi.  —  To  some  extent  this 
treaty  seems  to  have  prevented  assaults  from  Jolo,  but  in 
1730  the  Moros  of  Tawi  Tawi  fell  upon  Palawan  and  the 
Calamianes,  and  in  1731  another  expedition  from  the 
south  spent  nearly  a  whole  year  cruising  and  destroying 
among  the  Bisayas. 

Deplorable  State  of  Spanish  Defenses.  —  The  defenses 
of  the  Spaniards  during  these  many  decades  were  contin- 
ually in  a  deplorable  state,  their  arms  were  wretched,  and, 
except  in  moments  of  great  apprehension,  no  attention 
was  given  to  fortifications,  to  the  preservation  of  artillery, 
nor  to  the  supply  of  ammunition."  Sudden  attacks  ever 
found  the  Spaniards  unprepared.  Military  unreadiness 
was  the  normal  condition  of  this  archipelago  from  these 
early  centuries  down  to  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish 
armament  by  the  American  fleet. 

The  Economic  Policy  of  Spain.  —  Restrictions  of  Trade. 
—  During  the  closing  years  of  the  seventeenth  century 
and  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth,  commerce  seems  to 
have  been  actually  paralyzed.  That  brilliant  trade  which 
is  described  by  Morga,  and  which  was  at  its  height  about 


A   CENTURY  OF  OB.SCURITY.    1663-1762.  221 

1605,  was  a  few  years  later  defeated  by  the  miserable 
economic  policy  of  Spain,  pandering  to  the  demands  of 
the  merchants  of  Cadiz  and  Seville. 

Spain's  economic  policy  had  only  in  view  benefits  to 
the  Peninsula.  "The  Laws  of  the  Indies"  abound  with 
edicts  for  the  purpose  of  limiting  and  crippling  colonial 
commerce  and  industry,  wherever  it  was  imagined  that  it 
might  be  prejudicial  to  the  protected  industries  of  Spain. 
The  manufacturers  of  Seville  wished  to  preserve  the  col- 
onies, both  of  America  and  of  the  Indies,  as  markets  for 
their  monopoly  wares ;  and  in  this  policy,  for  two  centuries, 
they  had  the  support  of  the  crown.  The  growing  trade 
between  Mexico  and  the  Philippines  had  early  been  re- 
garded with  suspicion,  and  legislation  was  framed  to  reduce 
it  to  the  lowest  point  compatible  with  the  existence  of  the 
colony. 

None  of  the  colonies  of  America  could  conduct  commerce 
with  the  Philippines  except  Mexico,  and  here  all  communica- 
tion must  pass  through  the  port  of  Acapulco.  This  trade 
was  limited  to  the  passage  of  a  single  vessel  a  year.  In  1605 
two  galleons  were  permitted,  but  their  size  was  reduced 
to  three  hundred  tons.  They  were  allowed  to  carry  out 
500,000  pesos  of  silver,  but  no  more  than  250,000  pesos' 
worth  of  Chinese  products  could  be  returned.  Neither 
the  Spaniards  of  Mexico  nor  any  part  of  America  could 
traffic  directly  with  China,  nor  could  Spanish  vessels  pass 
from  Manila  to  the  ports  of  Asia.  Only  those  goods 
could  -be  bought  which  Chinese  merchants  themselves 
brought  to  the  Philippines. 

Selfishness  of  Merchants  in  Spain.  —  Even  these  re- 
strictions did  not  satisfy  the  jealousy  of  the  merchants  of 
Spain.  They  complained  that  the  royal  orders  limiting 
the  traffic  were  not  regarded,  and  they  insisted  upon  so 


222  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

vexatious  a  supervision  of  this  commerce,  and  surrounded 
infractions  of  the  law  with  such  terrible  penalties,  that 
the  trade  was  not  maintained  even  to  the  amount  per- 
mitted by  law.  Spanish  merchants  even  went  to  the 
point  of  petitioning  for  the  abandonment  of  the  Philip- 
pines, on  the  ground  that  the  importations  from  China 
were  prejudicial  to  the  industry  of  the  Peninsula. 

The  colonists  upon  the  Pacific  coast  of  America  suffered 
from  the  lack  of  those  commodities  demanded  by  civilized 
life,  which  could  only  reach  them  as  they  came  from 
Spain  through  the  port  of  Porto  Bello  and  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama.  Without  question,  an  enormous  and  bene- 
ficial commerce  could  have  been  conducted  by  the  Philip- 
pines with  the  provinces  of  western  America.1 

Trade  Between  South  America  and  the  Philippines 
Forbidden.  —  But  this  traffic  was  absolutely  forbidden, 
and  to  prevent  Chinese  and  Philippine  goods  from  enter- 
ing South  America,  the  trade  between  Mexico  and  Peru 
was  in  1636  wholly  suppressed  by  a  decree.  This  decree, 
as  it  stands  upon  the  pages  of  the  great  Recopilacion,  is 
an  epitome  of  the  insane  economic  policy  of  the  Spaniard. 
It  cites  that  whereas  "it  had  been  permitted  that  from 
Peru  to  New  Spain  there  should  go  each  year  two  vessels 
for  commerce  and  traffic  to  the  amount  of  two  hundred 
thousand  ducats  [which  later  had  been  reduced  to  one 
hundred  thousand  ducats],  and  because  there  had  in- 
creased in  Peru  to  an  excessive  amount  the  commerce  in 
the  fabrics  of  China,  in  spite  of  the  many  prohibitions 
that  had  been  imposed,  and  in  order  absolutely  to  remove 


1  Some  of  the  benefits  of  such  a  trade  are  set  forth  by  the  Jesuit, 
Alonzo  de  Ovalle,  in  his  Historical  Relation  of  the  Kingdom  of  Chili, 
printed  in  Rome,  1649.  In  Churchill's  Collection  of  Voyages  and 
Travels,  vol.  III. 


A    CENTURY  OF  OBSCURITY.     1663-1762.  223 

the  occasion  for  the  future,  we  order  and  command  the 
officers  of  Peru  and  New  Spain  that  they  invariably  pro- 
hibit and  suppress  this  commerce  and  traffic  between  the 
two  kingdoms  by  all  the  channels  through  which  it  is 
conducted,  maintaining  this  prohibition  firmly  and  con- 
tinually for  the  future."  1 

In  1718  the  merchants  of  Seville  and  Cadiz  still  com- 
plained that  their  profits  were  being  injured  by  even  the 
limited  importation  of  Chinese  silks  into  Mexico.  There- 
upon absolute  prohibition  of  import  of  Chinese  silks, 
either  woven  or  in  thread,  was  decreed.  Only  linens, 
spices,  and  supplies  of  such  things  as  were  not  produced 
in  Spain  could  be  brought  into  Mexico.  This  order  was 
reaffirmed  in  1720"  with  the  provision  that  six  months 
would  be  allowed  the  people  of  Mexico  to  consume  the 
Chinese  silks  which  they  had  in  their  possession,  and 
thereafter  all  such  goods  must  be  destroyed. 

Ineffectiveness  of  These  Restrictions.  —  These  meas- 
ures, while  ruining  the  commerce  of  the  Philippines, 
were  as  a  matter  of  fact  ineffective  to  accomplish  the 
result  desired.  Contraband  trade  between  China  and 
America  sprang  up  in  violation  of  the  law.  Silks  to  the 
value  of  four  million  pesos  were  annually  smuggled  into 
America.2  In  1734  the  folly  and  uselessness  of  such  laws 
was  somewhat  recognized  by  the  Council  of  the  Indies, 
and  a  ce*dula  was  issued  restoring  the  permission  to  trade 
in  Chinese  silks  and  raising  the  value  of  cargoes  destined 
for  Acapulco  to  five  hundred  thousand  pesos,  and  the 
quantity  of  silver  for  return  to  one  million  pesos.  The 
celebrated  traffic  of  the  galleon  was  resumed  and  continued 
until  the  year  1815. 


1  Recopilacidn  de  Leyes  de  las  Indias,  lib.  VIII.,  titulo  45,  ley  78. 
1  Montero  y  Vidal:   Historia  de  Filipinas,  vol.  I.,  p.  460. 


224  .  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

An  Attempt  to  Colonize  the  Carolines.  —  Southeastward 
of  the  Philippines,  in  that  part  of  the  Pacific  which  is 
known  as  Micronesia,  there  is  an  archipelago  of  small 
islands  called  the  Carolines.  The  westernmost  portion  of 
the  group  bears  the  name  of  the  Pelews,  or  Palaos.  In- 
asmuch as  these  islands  were  eventually  acquired  by 
Spain  and  remained  in  her  possession  down  to  the  year 
1890,  it  may  be  well  to  state  something  at  this  time  of 
the  attempt  made  by  the  Jesuits  in  1731  to  colonize  them. 

Certain  of  these  little  islands  were  seen  several  times  by 
expeditions  crossing  the  Pacific  as  early  as  the  latter  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  but  after  the  trade  between 
Mexico  and  the  Philippines  had  been  definitely  settled 
upon,  a  fixed  course  was  followed  westward  from  Acapulco 
to  Guam,  from  which  there  was  little  variation,  and  dur- 
ing the  seventeenth  century  these  islands  passed  quite 
out  of  mind;  but  in  the  year  1696  a  party  of  natives, 
twenty  men  and  ten  women,  were  driven  by  storms  far 
from  their  home  in  the  Carolines  upon  the  eastern  coast 
of  Samaf.  It  seems  that  similar  parties  of  castaways 
from  the  Pelew  and  Caroline  Islands  had  been  known  to 
reach  Mindanao  and  other  parts  of  the  Philippines  at  an 
even  earlier  date.  These  last  came  under  the  observation 
of  the  Jesuit  priests  on  Samar,  who  baptized  them,  and, 
learning  from  them  of  the  archipelago  from  which  they 
had  been  carried,  were  filled  with  missionary  ambition 
to  visit  and  Christianize  these  Pacific'  islanders. 

This  idea  was  agitated  by  the  Jesuits,  until  about 
1730  royal  permission  was  granted  to  the  enterprise.  A 
company  of  Jesuits  in  the  following  year  sailed  for  the 
Ladrones  and  thence  south  until  the  Carolines  were  discov- 
ered. They  landed  on  a  small  island  not  far  from  Yap. 
Here  they  succeeded  in  baptizing  numerous  natives  and 


A   CENTURY  OF  OBSCURITY.    166S-176S.  225 

in  establishing  a  mission.  Fourteen  of  their  number, 
headed  by  the  priest,  Padre  Cantava,  remained  on  the 
island  while  the  expedition  returned  to  secure  reenforce- 
ments  and  supplies.  Unfortunately,  this  succor  was  de- 
layed for  more  than  a  year,  and  when  Spanish  vessels 
with  missionary  reinforcements  on  board  again  reached 
the  Carolines  in  1733,  the  mission  had  been  entirely  de- 
stroyed and  the  Spaniards,  with  Padre  Cantava,  had  been 
killed.  These  islands  have  been  frequently  called  the 
"New  Philippines." 

Conditions  of  the  Filipinos  during  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury. —  During  the  most  of  the  eighteenth  century,  data 
are  few  upon  the  condition  of  the  Filipino  people.  There 
seems  to  have  been  little  progress.  Conditions  certainly 
were  against  the  social  or  intellectual  advance  of  the 
native  race.  Perhaps,  however,  then*  material  well-being 
was  quite  as  great  during  these  years,  when  little  was 
attempted,  as  during  the  governorships  of  the  more  ambi- 
tious and  enterprising  Spaniards  who  had  characterized 
the  earlier  period  of  Philippine  history. 

Provincial  Governments.  —  Provincial  administration 
seems  to  have  fallen  almost  wholly  into  the  hands  of  the 
missionaries.  The  priests  made  themselves  the  local  rulers 
throughout  the  Christianized  portion  of  the  archipelago. 

Insurrection  in  BoJiol.  —  Insurrection  seems  especially 
to  have  troubled  the  island  of  Bohol  during  most  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  in  1750  an  insurrection  broke  out 
which  practically  established  the  independence  of  a  large 
portion  of  the  island,  and  which  was  not  suppressed  for 
very  many  years.  The  trouble  arose  in  the  town  of  Ina- 
banga,  where  the  Jesuit  priest  Morales  had  greatly  antag- 
onized and  imbittered  the  natives  by  his  severity.  Some 
apostasized,  and  went  to  the  hills.  One  of  these  men  was 


226  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

killed  by  the  orders  of  the  priest  and  his  body  refused 
Christian  burial,  and  left  uncared  for  and  exposed. 

A  brother  of  this  man,  named  Dagohoy,  infuriated  by 
this  indignity,  headed  a  sedition  which  shortly  included 
three  thousand  natives.  The  priest  was  killed,  and  his  own 
body  left  by  the  road  unburied.  In  spite  of  the  efforts  of 
the  alcalde  of  Cebu,  Dagohoy  was  able  to  maintain  him- 
self, and  practically  established  a  small  native  state,  which 
remained  until  the  occupation  of  the  island  by  the  Recol- 
lects, after  the  Jesuits  had  been  expelled  from  the  Span- 
ish dominions. 

Activity  of  the  Jesuits.  —  During  the  eighteenth  century 
the  Jesuits  alone  of  the  religious  orders  seemed  to  have 
been  active  in  prosecuting  their  efforts  and  seeking  new 
fields  for  conversion.  The  sloth  and  inactivity  which 
overcame  the  other  orders  place  in  greater  contrast 
the  ambition  and  the  activities,  both  secular  and  spiritual, 
of  the  Jesuits. 

Conversion  of  the  Sultan  Alim  ud  Din.  —  In  1747 
they  established  a  mission  even  on  Jolo.  They  were 
unable  to  overcome  the  intense  antagonism  of  the  Moro 
panditas  and  datos,  but  they  apparently  won  the  young 
sultan,  Alim  ud  Din,  whose  strange  story  and  shifting 
fortunes  have  been  variously  told.  One  of  the  Jesuits, 
Padre  Villelmi,  was  skilled  in  the  Arabic  language,  and 
this  familiarity  with  the  language  and  literature  of  Mo- 
hammedanism doubtless  explains  his  ascendency  over  the 
mind  of  the  sultan.  Alim  ud  Din  was  not  a  strong  man. 
His  power  over  the  subordinate  datos  was  small,  and  in 
1748  his  brother,  Bantilan,  usurped  his  place  and  was 
proclaimed  sultan  of  Jolo. 

Alim  ud  Din,  with  his  family  and  numerous  escort,  came 
to  Zamboanga,  seeking  the  aid  of  the  Spanish  against 


A  CENTURY  OF  OBSCURITY.    166S-1762.  227 

his  brother.  From  Zamboanga  he  was  sent  to  Manila. 
On  his  arrival,  January  3,  1749,  he  was  received  with  all 
the  pomp  and  honor  due  to  a  prince  of  high  rank.  A 
house  for  his  entertainment  and  his  retinue  of  seventy  per- 
sons was  prepared  in  Binondo.  A  public  entrance  was 
arranged,  which  took  place  some  fifteen  days  after  his 
reaching  the  city.  Triumphal  arches  were  erected  across 
the  streets,  which  were  lined  with  more  than  two  thousand 
native  militia  under  arms.  The  sultan  was  publicly  re- 
ceived in  the  hall  of  the  Audiencia,  where  the  governor 
promised  to  lay  his  case  before  the  king  of  Spain.  The 
sultan  was  showered  with  presents,  which  included  chains 
of  gold,  fine  garments,  precious  gems,  and  gold  canes, 
while  the  government  sustained  the  expense  of  his 
household.1 

Following  this  reception,  steps  were  taken  for  his  con- 
version. His  spiritual  advisers  cited  to  him  the  example 
of  the  Emperor  Constantine  whose  conversion  enabled  him 
to  effect  triumphant  conquests  over  his  enemies.  Under 
these  representations  Alim  ud  Din  expressed  his  desire  for 
baptism.  The  governor-general,  who  at  this  time  was  a 
priest,  the  bishop  of  Nueva  Segovia,  was  very  anxious 
that  the  rite  should  take  place;  but  this  was  opposed  by 
his  spiritual  superior,  the  archbishop  of  Manila,  who,  with 
some  others,  entertained  doubts  as  to  the  sincerity  of  the 
sultan's  profession. 

In  order  to  accomplish  his  baptism,  the  governor 
sent  him  to  his  own  diocese,  where  at  Paniqui,  on  the 
29th  of  April,  1750,  the  ceremony  took  place  with  great 
solemnity.  On  the  return  of  the  party  to  Manila,,  the 

sultan  was  received  with  great  pomp,  and  in  his  honor 
t 

1  Relacidn  de  la  Entrada  del  Sultan  Rey  de  Jolo,  in  Archivo  del 
BMidfilo  Filipino,  vol.  I. 


228  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

were  held  games,  theatrical  representations,  fire-works,  and 
bull-fights.  This  was  the  high-water  mark  of  the  sultan's 
popularity. 

Failure  to  Reinstate  </Llim  ud  Din.  —  Meanwhile  the 
usurper,  Bantilan,  was  giving  abundant  evidence  of  his 
hostility.  The  Spaniards  were  driven  from  Jolo,  and  the 
fleets  of  the  Moros  again  ravaged  the  Bisayas.  In  July 
arrived  the  new  governor,  the  Marquis  of  Obando,  who 
determined  to  restore  Alim  ud  Din  and  suppress  the  Moro 
piracy. 

An  expedition  set  sail,  with  the  sultan  on  board, 
and  went  as  far  as  Zamboanga,  but  accomplished  noth- 
ing. Here  the  conduct  of  the  sultan  served  to  confirm 
the  doubts  of  the  Spaniards  as  to  the  sincerity  of  his 
friendship.  He  was  arrested,  and  returned  to  Manila,  and 
imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  Santiago.  With  varying 
treatment  he  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards 
until  1763,  when  he  was  returned  to  Jolo  by  the  English. 

Great  Increase  in  Moro  Piracy.  —  The  year  1754  is  stated 
to  have  been  the  bloodiest  in  the  history  of  Moro  piracy. 
No  part  of  the  Bisayas  escaped  ravaging  in  this  year, 
while  the  Camarines,  Batangas,  and  Albay  suffered  equally 
with  the  rest.  The  conduct  of  the  pirates  was  more  than  or- 
dinarily cruel.  Priests  were  slain,  towns  wholly  destroyed, 
and  thousands  of  captives  were  carried  south  into  Moro 
slavery.  The  condition  of  the  Islands  at  the  end  of  this 
year  was  probably  the  most  deplorable  in  their  history. 

Reforms  under  General  Arandia.  —  The  demoralization 
and  misery  with  which  Obando's  rule  closed  were  relieved 
somewhat  by  the  capable  government  of  Arandia,  who 
succeeded  him.  Arandia  was  one  of  the  few  men  of 
talent,  energy,  and  integrity  who  stood  at  the  head  of 
affairs  in  these  islands  during  two  centuries. 


A   CENTURY  OF  OBSCURITY.    1663-1762.  229 

He  reformed  the  greatly  disorganized  military  force, 
establishing  what  was  known  as  the  "Regiment  of  the 
King,"  made  up  very  largely  of  Mexican  soldiers.  He  also 
formed  a  corps  of  artillerists  composed  of  Filipinos. 
These  were  regular  troops,  who  received  from  Arandia 
sufficient  pay  to  enable  them  to  live  decently  and  like  an 
army. 

He  reformed  the  arsenal  at  Cavite,  and,  in  spite  of 
opposition  on  all  sides,  did  something  to  infuse  efficiency 
and  honesty  into  the  government.  At  the  head  of  the 
armament  which  had  been  sent  against  the  Moros  he 
placed  a  Jesuit  priest,  Father  Ducos.  A  capable  officer 
was  also  sent  to  command  the  presidio  at  Zamboanga, 
and  while  Moro  piracy  was  not  stopped,  heavy  retaliation 
was  visited  upon  the  pirates. 

Arandia's  most  popular  act  of  government  was  the 
expulsion  of  the  Chinese  from  the  provinces,  and  in  large 
part  from  the  city.  They  seem  to  have  had  in  their 
hands  then,  perhaps  even  more  than  now,  the  commerce 
or  small  trade  between  Manila  and  provincial  towns.  To 
take  over  this  trade,  Arandia  founded  a  commercial  com- 
pany of  Spaniards  and  mestizos,  which  lasted  only  for  a 
year.  The  Christianized  Chinese  were  allowed  to  remain 
under  license,  and  for  those  having  shops  in  Manila 
Arandia  founded  the  Alcayceria  of  San  Fernando.  It 
consisted  of  a  great  square  of  shops  built  about  an  open 
interior,  and  stood  in  Binondo,  on  the  site  of  the  former 
Parian,  in  what  is  still  a  populous  Chinese  quarter. 

Death  of  Arandia  and  Decline  of  the  Colony.  —  Arandfa 
died  in  May,  1759,  and  the  government  was  assumed  by 
the  bishop  of  Cebu,  who  in  turn  was  forced  from  his 
position  by  the  arrival  of  the  archbishop  of  Manila,  Don 
Manuel  Rojo.  The  archbishop  revoked  the  celebrated 


230  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

orders  of  good  government  which  Arandia  had  put  into 
force,  and  the  colony  promised  to  relapse  once  more  into 
its  customary  dormant  condition.  This  was,  however, 
prevented  by  an  event  which  brought  to  an  end  the  long 
period  of  obscurity  and  inertia  under  which  the  colony 
had  been  gradually  decaying,  and  introduced,  in  a  way,  a 
new  period  of  its  history.  This  was  the  capture  of  the 
Philippine  Islands  by  the  British  in  1762. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  PHILIPPINES   DURING   THE  PERIOD  OF 
EUROPEAN  REVOLUTION.   1762-1837. 

The  New  Philosophy  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  —  The 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  in  Europe  was  a  time 
when  ideas  were  greatly  liberalized.  A  philosophy  be- 
came current  which  professed  to  look  for  its  authority 
not  to  churches  or  hereditary  custom  and  privilege,  but 
to  the  laws  of  God  as  they  are  revealed  in  the  natural 
world.  Men  taught  that  if  we  could  only  follow  nature 
we  could  not  do  wrong.  "Natural  law"  became  the  basis 
for  a  great  amount  of  political  and  social  discussion  and 
the  theoretical  foundation  of  many  social  rights.  The 
savage,  ungoverned  man  was  by  many  European  philoso- 
phers and  writers  supposed  to  live  a  freer,  more  whole- 
some and  more  natural  life  than  the  man  who  is  bound 
by  the  conventions  of  society  and  the  laws  of  state. 

Most  of  this  reasoning  we  now  know  to  be  scientifically 
untrue.  The  savage  and  the  hermit  are  not,  in  actual 
fact,  types  of  human  happiness  and  freedom.  Ideal  life 
for  man  is  found  only  in  governed  society,  where  there  is 
order  and  protection,  and  where  also  should  be  freedom  of 
opportunity.  But  to  the  people  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  especially  to  the  scholars  of  France,  where  the 
government  was  monarchical  and  oppressive,  and  where 
the  people  were  terribly  burdened  by  the  aristocracy,  this, 
teaching  was  welcomed  as  a  new  gospel.  Nor  was  it  de- 
void of  grand  and  noble  ideas  —  ideas  which,  carried  out 
in  a  conservative  way,  have  greatly  bettered  society. 

It  is  from  this  philosophy  and  the  revolution  which 

231 


232  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

succeeded  it  that  the  world  received  the  modern  ideas 
of  liberty,  equality,  fraternity,  and  democracy.  These 
ideas,  having  done  their  work  in  America  and  Europe, 
are  here  at  work  in  the  Philippines  to-day.  It  remains 
to  be  seen  whether  a  society  can  be  rebuilt  here  on  these 
principles,  and  whether  Asia  too  will  be  reformed  under 
their  influence. 

Colonial  Conflicts  between  the  Great  European  Coun- 
tries. —  During  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
there  culminated  the  long  struggle  for  colonial  empire 
between  European  states,  which  we  have  been  following. 
We  have  seen  how  colonial  conquest  was  commenced  by 
the  Portuguese,  who  were  very  shortly  followed  by  the 
Spaniards,  and  how  these  two  great  Latin  powers  at- 
tempted to  exclude  the  other  European  peoples  from  the 
rich  Far  East  and  the  great  New  World  which  they  had 
discovered. 

We  have  seen  how  this  attempt  failed,  how  the  Dutch 
and  the  English  broke  in  upon  this  gigantic  reserve,  drove 
the  Spanish  fleets  from  the  seas,  and  despoiled  and 
took  of  this  great  empire  almost  whatever  they  would. 
The  Dutch  and  English  then  fought  between  themselves. 
The  English  excluded  the  Dutch  from  North  America, 
capturing  their  famous  colony  of  New  Amsterdam,  now 
New  York,  and  incorporating  it  (1674)  with  their  other 
American  colonies,  which  later  became  the  United  States 
of  America.  But  in  the  East  Indies  the  Dutch  main- 
tained their  trade  and  power,  gradually  extending  from 
island  to  island,  until  they  gained  —  what  they  still  pos- 
sess —  an  almost  complete  monopoly  of  spice  production. 

War  between  England  and  France.  —  In  India,  England 
in  the  eighteenth  century  won  great  possessions  and  laid 
the  foundation  for  what  has  been  an  almost  complete 


PERIOD  OF  EUROPEAN  REVOLUTION.  "233 

subjugation  of  this  Eastern  empire.  Here,  however,  and 
even  more  so  than  in  America,  England  encountered 
a  royal  and  brilliant  antagonist  in  the  monarch  of 
France. 

French  exploration  in  North  America  had  given  France 
claims  to  the  two  great  river  systems  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  the  Mississippi,  the  latter  by  far  the  greatest  and 
richest  region  of  the  temperate  zone.  So,  during  much, 
of  this  eighteenth  century,  England  and  France  were  in- 
volved hi  wars  that  had  for  their  prizes  the  possession 
of  the  continent  of  North  America  and  the  great  penin- 
sula of  India. 

This  conflict  reached  its  climax  between  1756  and  1763. 
Both  states  put  forth  all  their  strength.  France  called  to 
her  support  those  countries  whose  reigning  families  were 
allied  to  her  by  blood,  and  in  this  way  Spain  was  drawn 
into  the  struggle.  The  monarchs  of  both  France  and 
Spam  belonged  to  the  great  house  of  Bourbon.  War  was 
declared  between  England  and  Spain  in  1762.  Spain  was 
totally  unfitted  for  the  combat.  She  could  inflict  no  in- 
jury upon  England  and  simply  lay  impotent  and  helpless 
to  retaliate,  while  English  fleets  in  the  same  year  took 
Havana  in  the  west  and  Manila  in  the  east. 

English  Victory  over  French  in  India  and  America. 
—  English  power  in  India  was  represented  during  these 
years  by  the  greatest  and  most  striking  figure  in  Eng- 
land's colonial  history  —  Lord  Clive.  To  him  is  due  the 
defeat  of  France  in  India,  the  capture  of  her  possessions, 
and  the  founding  of  the  Indian  Empire,  which  is  still 
regarded  as  England's  greatest  possession.  The  French 
were  expelled  from  India  in  the  same  year  that  the  great 
citadel  of  New  France  in  America  —  Quebec  —  was  taken 
by  the  English  under  General  Wolfe. 


234 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


The  Philippines  under  the  English.  —  Expedition  from 
India  to  the  Philippines.  —  The  English  were  now  free 
to  strike  a  blow  at  France's  ally,  Spain;  and  in  Madras 
an  expedition  was  prepared  to  destroy  Spanish  power  in 
the  Philippines.  Notice  of  the  preparation  of  this  expe- 
dition reached  Manila  from  several  sources  in  the  spring 
and  summer  of  1762;  but  with  that  fatality  which  pur- 


Church  at  Malate. 

sued  the  Spaniard  to  the  end  of  his  history  in  the  Philip- 
pines, no  preparations  were  made  by  him,  until  on  the  22d 
of  September  a  squadron  of  thirteen  vessels  anchored  in 
Manila  Bay. 

Through  the  mist,  the  stupid  and  negligent  authorities 
of  Manila  mistook  them  for  Chinese  trading-junks;  but  it 
was  the  fleet  of  the  English  Admiral  Cornish,  with  a  force 
of  five  thousand  British  and  Indian  soldiers  under  the  com- 
mand of  General  Draper.  For  her  defense  Manila  had 


PERIOD  OF  EUROPEAN  REVOLUTION.  235 

only  550  men  of  the  "Regiment  of  the  King"  and  eighty 
Filipino  artillerists.  Yet  the  Spaniards  determined  to 
make  resistance  from  behind  the  walls  of  the  city. 

Surrender  of  Manila  to  the  English.  —  The  English 
disembarked  and  occupied  Malate.  From  the  churches  of 
Malate,  Ermita,  and  Santiago  the  British  bombarded 
Manila,  and  the  Spaniards  replied  from  the  batteries  of 
San  Andres  and  San  Diego,  the  firing  not  being  very  effec- 
tive on  either  side. 

On  the  25th,  Draper  summoned  the  city  to  surrender; 
but  a  council  of  war,  held  by  the  archbishop,  who  was  also 
governor,  decided  to  fight  on.  Thirty-six  hundred  Fili- 
pino militia  from  Pampanga,  Bulacan,  and  Laguna 
marched  to  the  defense  of  the  city,  and  on  the  3rd 
of  October  two  thousand  of  these  Filipinos  made  a  sally 
from  the  walls  and  recklessly  assaulted  the  English  lines, 
but  were  driven  back  with  slaughter.  On  the  night  of 
the  4th  of  October  a  breach  in  the  walls  was  made  by 
the  artillery,  and  early  in  the  morning  of  the  5th  four 
hundred  English  soldiers  entered  almost  without  resis- 
tance. A  company  of  militia  on  guard  at  the  Puerta  Real 
was  bayoneted  and  the  English  then  occupied  the  Plaza, 
and  here  received  the  surrender  of  the  fort  of  Santiago. 

The  English  agreed  not  to  interfere  with  religious 
liberty,  and  honors  of  war  were  granted  to  the  Spanish 
soldiers.  Guards  were  placed  upon  the  convent  of  the 
nuns  of  Santa  Clara  and  the  beaterios,  and  the  city  was 
given  over  to  pillage,  which  lasted  for  forty  hours,  and 
in  which  many  of  the  Chinese  assisted. 

Independent  Spanish  Capital  under  Anda  at  Bu- 
lacan.—  The  English  were  thus  masters  of  the  city,  but 
during  their  period  of  'occupation  ^hey  never  extended 
their  power  far  beyond  the  present  limits  of  Manila.  Pre- 


236  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

vious  to  the  final  assault  and  occupation  of  Manila,  the 
authorities  had  nominated  the  oidor,  Don  Simon  de  Anda  y 
Salazar,  lieutenant-governor  and  judge-at-large  of  the 
Islands,  with  instructions  to  maintain  the  country  in  its 
obedience  to  the  king  of  Spain.  Anda  left  the  capital  on 
the  night  of  October  4,  passing  in  a  little  banka  through 
the  nipa  swamps  and  esteros  on  the  north  shore  of  Manila 
Bay  to  the  provincial  capital  of  Bulacan. 

Here  he  called  together  the  provincial  of  the  Augus- 
tinian  monks,  the  alcalde  mayor  of  the  province,  and  some 
other  Spaniards.  They  resolved  to  form  an  independent 
government  representing  Spain,  and  to  continue  the  resis- 
tance. This  they  were  able  to  do  as  long  as  the  British 
remained  in  the  Islands.  The  English  made  a  few  short 
expeditions  into  Bulacan  and  up  the  Pasig  River,  but 
there  was  no  hard  fighting  and  no  real  effort  made  to 
pursue  Anda's  force.  The  Chinese  welcomed  the  English 
and  gave  them  some  assistance,  and  for  this  Anda  slew 
and  hanged  great  numbers  of  them. 

T7ie  Philippines  Returned  to  Spain. —  By  the  Treaty 
of  Paris  in  1763,  peace  was  made,  by  which  France  sur- 
rendered practically  all  her  colonial  possessions  to  Eng- 
land; but  England  returned  to  Spain  her  captures  in 
Cuba  and  the  Philippines.  In  March,  1764,  there  arrived 
the  Spanish  frigate  "Santa  Rosa,"  bringing  the  first 
"  Lieutenant  of  the  King  for  the  Islands,"  Don  Francisco  de 
la  Torre,  who  brought  with  him  news  of  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  and  the  orders  to  the  English  to  abandon  the  Islands. 

Resistance  of  the  English  by  the  Friars.  —  In  re- 
sistance to  the  English  and  in  the  efforts  to  maintain 
Spanish  authority,  a  leading  part  had  been  taken  by  the 
friars.  "  The  sacred  orders,"  says  Martinez  de  Zufiiga/ 

1  Historia  de  Filipinas,  p.  682. 


PERIOD  OF  EUROPEAN  REVOLUTION.  237 

"  had  much  to  do  with  the  success  of  Senor  Anda.  They 
maintained  the  Indians  of  their  respective  administrations 
loyal  to  the  orders;  they  inspired  the  natives  with  horror 
against  the  English  as  enemies  of  the  king  and  of  religion, 
inciting  them  to  die  fighting  to  resist  them;  they  contrib- 
uted their  estates  and  their  property;  and  they  exposed 
their  own  persons  to  great  dangers."  The  friars  were  cer- 
tainly most  interested  in  retaining  possession  of  the  Islands 
and  had  most  to  lose  by  their  falling  into  English  hands. 

Increase  of  the  Jesuits  in  Wealth  and  Power.  —  In  this 
zealous  movement  for  defense,  however,  the  Jesuits  bore 
no  part;  and  there  were  charges  made  against  them  of 
treasonable  intercourse  with  the  English,  which  may 
have  had  foundation,  and  which  are  of  significance  in 
the  light  of  what  subsequently  occurred. 

At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  all  the  governments 
of  Catholic  Europe  were  aroused  with  jealousy  and  sus- 
picious hatred  against  the  Jesuits.  The  society,  organized 
primarily  for  missionary  labor,  had  gradually  taken  on  much 
of  a  secular  character.  The  society  was  distinguished,  as 
we  have  seen  in  its  history  in  the  Philippines,  by  men 
with  great  capacity  and  liking  for  what  we  may  call  prac- 
tical affairs  as  distinguished  from  purely  religious  or  de- 
votional life.  The  Jesuits  were  not  alone  missionaries 
and  orthodox  educators,  but  they  were  scientists,  geog- 
raphers, financiers,  and  powerful  and  almost  independent 
administrators  among  heathen  peoples.  They  had  en- 
gaged so  extensively  and  shrewdly  in  trade  that  their 
estates,  warehouses,  and  exchanges  bound  together  the 
fruitful  fields  of  colonial  provinces  with  the  busy  marts 
and  money-centers  of  Europe.  Their  wealth  was  believed 
to  be  enormous.  Properly  invested  and  carefully  guarded, 
it  was  rapidly  increasing. 


238  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

What,  however,  made  the  order  exasperating  alike  to 
rulers  and  peoples  were  the  powerful  political  intrigues 
in  which  members  of  the  order  engaged.  Strong  and 
masterful  men  themselves,  the  field  of  state  affairs  was 
irresistibly  attractive.  Their  enemies  charged  that  they 
were  unscrupulous  in  the  means  which  they  employed  to 
accomplish  political  ends.  It  is  quite  certain  that  the 
Jesuits  were  not  patriotic  in  their  purposes  or  plans. 
They  were  an  international  corporation;  their  members 
belonged  to  no  one  nation ;  to  them  the  Society  was  greater 
and  more  worthy  of  devotion  than  any  state,  in  which 
they  themselves  lived  and  worked. 

Dissolution  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  —  Europe  had,  how- 
ever, reached  the  belief,  to  which  it  adheres  to-day,  that 
a  man  must  be  true  to  the  country  in  which  he  lives  and 
finds  shelter  and  protection  and  in  which  he  ranks  as  a 
political  member,  or  else  incur  odium  and  punishment. 
Thus  it  was  their  indifference  to  national  feeling  that 
brought  about  the  ruin  of  the  Jesuits.  It  is  significant 
that  the  rulers,  the  most  devoted  to  Catholicism,  followed 
one  another  in  decreeing  their  expulsion  from  their 
dominions.  In  1759  they  were  expelled  from  Portugal, 
m  1764  from  France,  and  April  2,  1767,  the  decree  of  con- 
fiscation and  banishment  from  Spain  and  all  Spanish 
possessions  was  issued  by  King  Carlos  III.  Within  a 
year  thereafter,  the  two  most  powerful  princes  of  Italy, 
the  king  of  Naples  and  the  Duke  of  Parma,  followed,  and 
then  the  Grand  Master  of  the  Knights  of  Malta  expelled 
them  from  that  island.  The  friends  of  the  order  were 
powerless  to  withstand  this  united  front  of  Catholic  mon- 
archs,  and  in  July,  1773,  Pope  Clement  XIV.  suppressed 
and  dissolved  the  society,  which  was  not  restored  until 
1814. 


PERIOD  OF  EUROPEAN  REVOLUTION.  239 

X 

The  Jesuits  Expelled  from  the  Philippines. — The  order 
expelling  the  Jesuits  from  the  Philippines  was  put  into 
effect  in  the  year  1767.  The  instructions  authorized  the 
governor  in  case  of  resistance  to  use  force  of  arms  as 
against  a  rebellion.1  Besides  their  colleges  in  Manila, 
Tonclo,  Cavite,  Leyte,  Samar,  Bohol,  and  Negros,  the 
Jesuits  administered  curacies  in  the  vicinity  of  Manila,  in 
Cavite  province,  hi  Mindoro  and  Marinduque,  while  the 
islands  of  Bohol,  Samar,  and  Leyte  were  completely  under 
their  spiritual  jurisdiction.  In  Mindanao  their  missions, 
a  dozen  or  more  in  number,  were  found  on  both  the  north- 
ern and  southern  coasts.  Outside  of  the  Philippines 
proper  they  were  the  missionaries  on  the  Ladrones,  or 
Marianas.  Their  property  in  the  Philippines,  which  was 
confiscated  by  the  government,  amounted  to  1,320,000 
pesos,  although  a  great  deal  of  their  wealth  was  secreted 
and  escaped  seizure  through  the  connivance  of  the  gov- 
ernor, Raon. 

Governor  Anda's  Charges  against  the  Religious  Orders. 
-Don  Simon  de  Anda  had  been  received  in  Spain  with 
great  honor  for  the  defense  which  he  had  made  in  the 
Islands,  and  in  1770  returned  as  governor  of  the  Philip- 
pines. His  appointment  was  bitterly  resented  by  the 
friars.  In  1768,  Anda  had  addressed  to  the  king  a  memo- 
rial upon  the  disorders  in  the  Philippines,  hi  which  he 
openly  charged  the  friars  with  commercialism,  neglect  of 
their  spiritual  duties,  oppression  of  the  natives,  opposi- 
tion to  the  teaching  of  the  Spanish  language,  and  scanda- 
lous interference  with  civil  officials  and  affairs.  Anda's 
remedy  for  these  abuses  was  the  rigorous  enforcement  of 


1  These  orders  and  other  documents  dealing  with  the  Jesuit  expul- 
sion are  printed  in  Montero  y  Vidal,  Historia  de  Filipinos,  vol.  II. 
p.  180  sq. 


240 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


the  laws  actually  existing  for  the  punishment  of  such  con- 
duct and  the  return  to  Spain  of  friars  who  rekised  to 
respect  the  law. 

He  was,  however,  only  partially  successful  in  his  policy. 
During  the  six  years  of  his  rule,  he  labored  unremittingly 
to  restore  the  Spanish  government  and  to  lift  it  from  the 
decadence  and  corruption  that  had  so  long  characterized 


The  Anda  Monument  in  Manila. 

it.  There  were  strong  traits  of  the  modern  man  in  this 
independent  and  incorruptible  official.  If  he  made  many 
enemies,  it  is,  perhaps,  no  less  to  the  credit  of  his  char- 
acter; and  if  in  the  few  years  of  his  official  life  he  was 
unable  to  restore  the  colony,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
he  had  few  assistants  upon  whom  to  rely  and  was  without 
adequate  means. 

The  Moro  Pirates.  —  The  Moros  were  again  upon  their 
forays,  and  in  1771  even  attacked  Aparri,  on  the  extreme 


PERIOD  OF  EUROPEAN  REVOLUTION. 


241 


northern  coast  of  Luzon,  and  captured  a  Spanish  mission- 
ary.   Anda   reorganized   the  Armada   de   Pintados,  and 
toward    the    end 
of  his  life  created 
also  the   Marina 
Sutil,  a  fleet  of  light 
gunboats    for    the 
defense    of  the 
coasts  against  the 
attacks  of  pirates. 

Failure   of    an  I^B^HB 

English  Settle- 
ment. —  The  hos- 
tility of  the  Moro 
rulers  was  compli- 
cated by  the  inter- 
ference of  the  Eng- 
lish, who,  after  the 
evacuation  of  Ma- 
nila, continued  to 
haunt  the  Sulu  archipelago  with  the  apparent  object  of 
effecting  a  settlement.  By  treaty  with  the  Sulu  sultan, 

they  secured  the  ces- 
sion of  the  island  of' 
Balambangan,  off  the 
north  coast  of  Borneo. 
This  island  was  forti- 
fied and  a  factory  was 
established,  but  in 
1775  the  Moros  at- 
tacked the  English 
with  great  fury  and  destroyed  the  entire  garrison,  ex- 
cept the  governor  and  five  others,  who  escaped  on  board 


Igorot  Ax. 


Moro  Gong. 


242  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

a  vessel,  leaving  a  great  quantity  of  arms  and  wealth  to 
the  spoils  of  the  Moros.  The  English  factors,  who  had 
taken  up  business  on  the  island  of  Jolo,  fled  in  a  Chinese 
junk;  and  these  events,  so  unfortunate  to  the  English, 
ended  their  attempts  to  gain  a  position  in  the  Sulu  archi- 
pelago until  many  years  later. 

Increase  in  Agriculture.  —  Anda  died  in  October,  1776, 
and  his  successor,  Don  Jose  Basco  y  Vargas,  was  not 
appointed  until  July,  1778.  With  fiasco's  governorship 
we  see  the  beginning  of  those  numerous  projects  for  the 
encouragement  of  agriculture  and  industry  which  charac- 
terized the  last  century  of  Spanish  rule.  His  "  Plan 
general  economico  "  contemplated  the  encouragement  of 
cotton-planting,  the  propagation  of  mulberry-trees  and 
silk-worms,  and  the  cultivation  of  spices  and  sugar.  Pre- 
miums were  offered  for  success  in  the  introduction  of  these 
new  products  and  for  the  encouragement  of  manufactur- 
ing industries  suitable  to  the  country  and  its  people. 

Out  of  these  plans  grew  the  admirable  Sociedad  Eco- 
nomica  de  Amigos  del  Pais,  which  was  founded  by  Basco 
in  1780.  The  idea  was  an  excellent  one,  and  the  society, 
although  suffering  long  periods  of  inactivity,  lasted  for 
fully  a  century,  and  from  time  to  time  was  useful  in  the 
improvement  and  development  of  the  country,  and  stim- 
ulated agricultural  experiments  through  its  premiums 
and  awards. 

Establishment  of  the  Tobacco  Industry.  —  Up  to  this 
time  the  Philippine  revenues  had  been  so  unproductive 
that  the  government  was  largely  supported  by  a  sub- 
sidy of  250,000  pesos  a  year  paid  by  Mexico.  Basco  was 
the  first  to  put  the  revenues  of  the  Islands  upon  a  lucra- 
tive basis.  To  him  was  due  the  establishment,  in  1782,  of 
the  famous  tobacco  monopoly  (estanco  de  tabacos)  which  be- 


PERIOD  OF  WROPEAN  REVOLUTION. 


243 


Igorot  Drum. 


came  of  great  im- 
portance many  years 
later,  as  new  and 
rich  tobacco  lands 
like  the  Gag  ay  an 
were  brought  under 
cultivation. 

Favorable  Com- 
mercial Legisla- 
tion. —  The  change 
in  economic  ideas, 
which  had  come  over 
Europe  through  tha 
liberalizing  thought 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  is  shown  also  by  a  most  ra- 
dical step  to  direct  into  new  channels 
the  commerce  of  the  Philippines.  This 
was  the  creation  in  1785  of  a  great  trad- 
ing corporation  with  special  privileges  and 
crown  protection,  "The  Royal  Company 
of  the  Philippines." 

The  company  was  given  a  complete 
monopoly  of  all  the  commerce  between 
Spain  and  the  Philippines,  except  the 
long-established  direct  traffic  between  Ma- 
nila and  Acapulco.  All  the  old  laws, 
designed  to  prevent  the  importation  into 
the  Peninsula  of  wares  of  the  Orient, 
were  swept  away.  Philippine  products 
were  exempted  from  all  customs  duty 
either  on  leaving  Manila  or  entering 
Spain.  The  vessels  of  the  company  were 
permitted  to  visit  the  ports  of  China,  and  the  ancient 


Igorot  Shield. 


244      .  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

and  absurd  prohibition,  which  prevented  the  merchants 
of  Manila  from  trading  with  India  and  China,  was  re- 
moved. 

Though  still  closing  the  Philippines  against  foreign 
trade,  this  step  was  a  veritable  revolution  in  the  com- 
mercial legislation  of  the  Philippines.  Had  the  project 
been  ably  and  heartily  supported,  it  might  have  pro- 
duced a  development  that  would  have  advanced  pros- 
perity half  a  century;  but  the  people  of  Manila  did  not 
welcome  the  opening  of  this  new  line  of  communica- 
tion. The  ancient  commerce  with  Acapulco  was  a  val- 
uable monopoly  to  those  who  had  the  right  to  participate 
in  it,  and  their  attitude  toward  the  new  company  was 
one  either  of  indifference  or  hostility. 

In  1789  the  port  of  Manila  was  opened  and  made  free 
to  the  vessels  of  all  foreign  nations  for  the  space  of  three 
years,  for  the  importation  and  sale  exclusively  of  the 
wares  of  Asia;  but  the  products  of  Europe,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Spain,  were  forbidden. 

The  Royal  Company  was  rechartered  in  1805,  and  en- 
joyed its  monopoly  until  1830,  when  its  privileges  lapsed 
and  Manila  was  finally  opened  to  the  ships  of  foreign 
nations. 

Conquest  of  the  Igorot  Provinces  of  Luzon.  —  Basco 
was  a  zealous  governor  and  organized  a  number  of  mili- 
tary expeditions  to  occupy  the  Igorot  country  in  the 
north.  In  1785  the  heathen  Igorots  of  the  missions  of 
Paniqui  and  Ituy,  or  Nueva  Vizcaya,  revolted  and  had  to 
be  reconquered  by  a  force  of  musketeers  from  Cagayan. 

Conquest  of  the  Batanes  Islands.  —  Basco  also  effected 
the  conquest  of  the  Batanes  Islands  to  the  north  of  Luzon, 
establishing  garrisons  and  definitely  annexing  them  to  the 
colony.  The  Dominican  missionaries  shortly  before  this 


PERIOD  OF  EUROPEAN  REVOLUTION.  245 

time  had  attempted  to  convert  these  islands  to  Chris- 
tianity, but  the  poverty  of  the  people  and  the  fierceness 
of  the  typhoons  which  sweep  these  little  islands  prevented 
the  cultivation  of  anything  more  than  camotes  and  taro, 
and  had  made  them  unprofitable  to  hold.  Basco  was 
honored,  however,  for  his  reoccupation  of  these  islands, 
and  on  his  return  to  Spain,  at  the  expiration  of  his  gov- 
ernorship, received  the  title  of  "Count  of  the  Conquest  of 
the  Batanes."  l 

A  Scientific  Survey  of  the  Coast  of  the  Islands.  —  About 
1790  the  Philippines  were  visited  by  two  Spanish  frigates, 
the  "  Descubierta "  and  the  "Atrevida,"  under  the  com- 
mand of  Captain  Malaspina.  These  vessels  formed  an 
exploring  expedition  sent  out  by  the  Spanish  government 
to  make  a  hydrographic  and  astronomic  survey  of  the 
coasts  of  Spanish  America,  the  Ladrones,  and  the  Philip- 
pines. It  was  one  of  those  creditable  enterprises  for  the 
widening  of  scientific  knowledge  which  modern  govern- 
ments have  successively  and  with  great  honor  conducted. 

The  expedition  charted  the  Strait  of  San  Bernardino, 
the  coasts  of  several  of  the  Bisayan  Islands,  and  Mindanao. 
One  of  the  scientists  of  the  party  was  the  young  botanist, 
Don  Antonio  Pineda,  who  died  in  Ilokos  in  1792,  but  whose 
studies  in  the  flora  of  the  Philippines  thoroughly  estab- 
lished his  reputation.  A  monument  to  his  memory  was 
erected  near  the  church  in  Malate,  but  it  has  since  suffered 
from  neglect  and  is  now  falling  in  ruins. 

Establishment  of  a  Permanent  Navy  in  the  Philippines. 
—  The  intentions  of  England  in  this  archipelago  were  still 
regarded  with  suspicion  by  the  Spanish  government,  and 


1  These  little  islands'  have  a  dense  population,  but  owing  to  their 
stormy  situation,  seem  never  to  have  been  examined  until  the  visit  of 
the  English  freebooter,  Dampier,  in  1687. 


246 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


Moro  Kris  and  Sheath. 


in  1795  and  1796  a  strong  Spanish  fleet,  sent  secretly  by 
way  of  the  coast  of  South  America,  was  concentrated  in 
the  waters  of  the  Philippines  under  the  command  of  Ad- 
miral Alava.  Its  object  was  the  defense  of  the  Islands  in 

case  of  a  new 
war  with  Great 
Britain.  News 
of  the  declara- 
tion  of  war  be- 
tween  these 
two  countries 
reached  Manila 
in  March,  1797, 
but  though  for  many  months  there  was  anxiety,  Eng- 
land made  no  attempt  at  reoccupation.  These  events  led, 
however,  to  the  formation  of  a  permanent  naval  squad- 
ron, with  head-  -  

quarters  and  naval 
station  at  Cavite.1 

The  Climax  of 
Moro  Piracy.  — 
The  continued 
presence  of  the 
M  o  r  o  s  in  M  i  n-  Moro  Beheading  Knives. 

doro,   where   they 
haunted  the  bays  and  rivers  of  both  east  and  west  coasts 


1  Alava  made  a  series  of  journeys  through  the  different  provinces 
of  the  Philippines,  and  on  these  trips  he  was  accompanied  by  Friar 
Martinez  de  Zuniga,  whose  narrative  of  these  expeditions  forms  a 
most  interesting  and  valuable  survey  of  the  conditions  of  the  Islands 
and  the  people  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century:  "  Esta- 
dismo  de  las  Islas  Filipinas,  6  mis  viajes  por  este  pais,  por  el  Padre 
Fr.  Joaquin  Martinez  de  Zuniga.  Publica  esta  obra  por  primera  mz 
extensamente  anotada  W.  E.  Retana."  2  vols.  Madrid,  1893. 


PERIOD  OF  EUROPEAN  REVOLUTION. 


247 


for  months  at  a  time,  stealing  out  from  this  island  for 
attack  in  every  direction,  was  specially  noted  by  Padre 
Zufiiga,  and  indicated  how  feebly  the  Spaniards  repulsed 
these  pirates  a  hundred  years  ago. 

It  was  the  last  severe  phase  of  Malay  piracy,  when 
even  the  strong  merchant  ships  of  England  and  America 
dreaded  the  straits  of  Borneo  and 
passed  with  caution  through  the 
China  Sea.  Northern  Borneo,  the 
Sulu  archipelago,  and  the  southern 
coasts  of  Mindanao  were  the  centers 
from  which  came  these  fierce  sea- 
wolves,  whose  cruel  exploits  have 
left  their  many  traditions  in  the 
American  and  British  merchant  na- 
vies, just  as  they  periodically  appear 
in  the  chronicles  of  the  Philippines. 

Five  hundred  captives  annually 
seem  to  have  been  the  spoils  taken 
by  these  Moros  in  the  Philippines  Is- 
lands, and  as  far  south  as  Batavia 
and  Macassar  captive  Filipinos  were 
sold  hi  the  slave  marts  of  the  Ma- 
lays. The  aged  and  infirm  were  in- 
humanly bartered  to  the  savage  Moro  Hunting'spear. 
tribes  of  Borneo,  who  offered  them 
up  in  their  ceremonial  sacrifices.  The  measures  of  the 
Spanish  government,  though  constant  and  expensive,  were 
ineffective.  Between  1778  and  1793,  a  million  and  a  half 
of  pesos  were  expended  on  the  fleets  and  expeditions  to 
drive  back  or  punish  the  Moros,  but  at  the  end  of  the 
century  a  veritable  climax  of  piracy  was  attained. 

Pirates  swarmed  continually  about  the  coasts  of  Min- 


248 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


doro,  Burias,  and  Masbate,  and  even  frequented  the 
esteros  of  Manila  Bay.  Some  sort  of  peace  seems  to  have 
been  established  with  Jolo  and  a  friendly  commerce  was 
engaged  in  toward  the  end  of  the  century,  but  the  Moros 
of  Mindanao  and  Borneo  were  unceasing  enemies.  In 
1798  a  fleet  of  twenty-five  Moro  bankas  passed  up  the 
Pacific  coast  of  Luzon  and  fell  upon  the  isolated  towns  of 
Baler,  Casiguran,  and  Palanan,  destroying  the  pueblos 

and  taking  450  cap- 
tives. The  cura  of 
Casiguran  was  ran- 
somed in  Binangonan 
for  the  sum  of  twenty- 
five  hundred  pesos. 
For  four  years  this 
pirate  fleet  had  its 
rendezvous  on  Bu- 
rias, whence  it  raided 
the  adjacent  coasts 
and  the  Catanduanes. 
The  Great  Wars  in 
America  and  Europe. 
• —  The  English  reoc- 
cupied  Balambangan  in  1803,  but  held  the  island  for 
only  three  years,'  when  it  was  definitely  abandoned.  For 
some  years,  however,  the  coasts  of  the  Philippines  were 
threatened  by  English  vessels,  and  there  was  reflected 
here  in  the  Far  East  the  tremendous  conflicts  which  were 
convulsing  Europe  at  this  time.  The  wars  which  changed 
Europe  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  following 
the  French  Revolution,  form  one  of  the  most  important 
and  interesting  periods  of  European  history,  but  it  is 
also  one  of  the  most  difficult  periods  to  judge  and  de- 


Moro  ' '  Kulintangan  ' '  or  Xylophone . 


PERIOD  OF  EUROPEAN  REVOLUTION.  249 

scribe.  We  will  say  of  it  here  only  so  much  as  will  be 
sufficient  to  show  the  effect  upon  Spain  and  so  upon  the 
Philippines. 

The  Revolution  of  the  English  Colonies  in  America.  — 
In  1776  the  thirteen  English  colonies  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  North  America  declared  their  independence  of  Great 
Britain.  In  the  unfair  treatment  of  the  British  king  and 
Parliament  they  had,  they  believed,  just  grounds  for  revo- 
lution. For  nearly  eight  years  a  war  continued  by  which 
England  strove  to  reduce  them  again  to  obedience.  .But 
at  the  end  of  that  time  England,  having  successively  lost 
two  armies  of  invasion  by  defeat  and  capture,  made  peace 
with  the  American  colonists  and  recognized  their  inde- 
pendence. In  1789  the  Americans  framed  their  present 
constitution  and  established  the  United  States  of  America. 

The  French  Revolution.  —  Condition  of  the  People 
in  France.  —  In  their  struggle  for  independence  the 
Americans  had  been  aided  by  France,  who  hoped  through 
this  opportunity  to  cripple  her  great  colonial  rival,  Eng- 
land. Between  America  and  France  there  was  close  sym- 
pathy of  political  ideas  and  theories,  although  in  their 
actual  social  conditions  the  two  countries  were  as  widely 
separated  as  could  be.  In  America  the  society  and  gov- 
ernment were  democratic.  All  classes  were  experienced 
in  politics  and  government.  They  had  behind  them  the 
priceless  heritage  of  England's  long  struggle  for  free  and 
representative  government.  There  was  an  abundance  of 
the  necessaries  of  life  and  nearly  complete  freedom  of 
opportunity. ' 

France,  like  nearly  every  other  country  of  continental 
Europe,  was  suffering  from  the  obsolete  burden  of  feuda- 
lism. The  ownership  of  the  land  was  divided  between 
the  aristocracy  and  the  church.  The  great  bulk  of  the 


250  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

population  were  serfs  bound  to  the  estates,  miserably  op- 
pressed, and  suffering  from  lack  of  food,  and  despoiled 
of  almost  every  blessing  which  can  brighten  and  dignify 
human  life.  The  life  of  the  court  and  of  the  nobility 
grew  more  luxurious,  extravagant,  and  selfish  as  the 
economic  conditions  in  France  became  worse.  The  king 
was  nearly  an  absolute  monarch.  His  will  was  law  and 
the  earlier  representative  institutions,  which  in  England 
had  developed  into  the  splendid  system  of  parliamentary 
government,  had  in  France  fallen  into  decay. 

In  the  other  countries  of  Europe  —  the  German  States, 
Austria,  Italy,  and  Spain  —  the  condition  of  the  people 
was  quite  as  bad,  probably  in  some  places  even  worse 
than  it  was  in  France.  But  it  was  in  France  that  the 
revolt  broke  forth,  and  it  was  France  which  led  Europe 
in  a  movement  for  a  better  and  more  democratic  order. 
Frenchmen  had  fought  in  the  armies  of  America;  they 
had  experienced  the  benefits  of  a  freer  society,  and  it  is 
significant  that  in  the  same  year  (1789)  that  saw  the 
founding  of  the  American  state  the  Revolution  in  France 
began.  It  started  in  a  sincere  and  conservative  attempt 
to  remedy  the  evils  under  which  France  was  suffering, 
but  the  accumulation  of  injustice  and  misery  was  too 
great  to  be  settled  by  slow  and  hesitating  measures.  The 
masses,  ignorant,  and  bitter  with  their  wrongs,  broke 
from  the  control  of  statesman  and  reformer,  threw  them- 
selves upon  the  established  state  and  church,  both  equally 
detestable  to  them,  and  tore  them  to  pieces.  Both  king 
and  queen  died  by  beheading.  The  nobility  were  either 
murdered  or  expelled.  The  revolutionary  government,  if 
such  it  could  be  called,  fell  into  the  hands  of  wicked  and 
terrible  leaders,  who  maintained  themselves  by  murder 
and  terrorism. 


PERIOD  OF  EUROPEAN  REVOLUTION.  251 

Effects  of  the  Revolution.  —  These  are  the  outward 
and  terrible  expressions  of  the  Revolution  which  were 
seized  upon  by  European  statesmen  and  which  have  been 
most  dwelt  upon  by  historical  writers.  But,  apart  from 
the  bloody  acts  of  the  years  from  1793  to  1795,  the  Revo- 
lution modernized  France  and  brought  incalculable  gains 
to  the  French  people.  By  the  seizure  of  the  great  estates 
and  their  division  among  the  peasantry,  the  agricultural 
products  of  the  country  were  doubled  in  a  single  year, 
and  that  terrible  condition  of .  semi-starvation  which  had 
prevailed  for  centuries  was  ended. 

The  other  monarchies  of  Europe  regarded  the  events  in 
France  with  horror  and  alarm.  Monarchs  felt  their  own 
thrones  threatened,  and  a  coalition  of  European  mon- 
archies was  formed  to  destroy  the  republic  and  to  restore 
the  French  monarchy  and  old  regime.  France  found  her- 
self invaded  by  armies  upon  every  frontier.  It  was  then 
that  the  remarkable  effects  produced  by  the  Revolution 
upon  the  people  of  France  appeared. 

With  a  passionate  enthusiasm  which  was  irresistible, 
the  people  responded  to  the  call  for  war;  great  armies 
were  enlisted,  which  by  an  almost  uninterrupted  series  of 
victories  threw  back  the  forces  of  the  allies.  Men  rose 
from  obscurity  to  the  command  of  armies,  and  there  was 
developed  that  famous  group  of  commanders,  the  mar- 
shals of  France.  Out  of  this  terrible  period  of  warfare 
there  arose,  too,  another,  who  was  perhaps,  if  we  except 
the  Macedonian  king,  Alexander,  the  greatest  man  ever 
permitted  to  lead  armies  and  to  rule  men  —  Bonaparte, 
later  the  emperor,  Napoleon  the  First. 

France  and  Europe  under  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  — 
From  1795,  when  Bonaparte  was  given  command  of  the 
invasion  of  Italy,  until  1815,  when  he  was  finally  defeated 


252  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

at  Waterloo  in  Belgium,  Europe  experienced  almost  con- 
tinuous war.  The  genius  of  Napoleon  reduced  to  the 
position  of  vassal  states  Italy,  Switzerland,  Holland,  Bel- 
gium, Germany,  and  Austria.  In  all  these  countries  the 
ancient  thrones  were  humbled,  feudalism  was  swept  away, 
and  the  power  of  a  corrupt  church  and  aristocracy  was 
broken.  In  spite  of  the  humiliation  of  national  pride,  these 
great  benefits  to  Europe  of  Napoleon's  conquests  can  not 
be  overestimated.  Wherever  Napoleon's  power  extended 
there  followed  the  results  of  the  Revolution — a  better  system 
of  law,  the  introduction  of  the  liberal  "  Code  Napoleon," 
the  liberation  of  the  people  from  the  crushing  toils  of 
medievalism,  and  the  founding  of  a  better  society.  These 
are  the  debts  which  Europe  owes  to  the  French  Revolution. 

The  Decline  of  Spain.  —  Lack  of  Progress.  —  In  this 
advance  and  progress  Spain  did  not  share.  The  empire 
of  Napoleon  was  never  established  in  the  Peninsula.  In 
1811  the  Spaniards,  with  the  assistance  of  the  English 
under  the  great  general,  Wellington,  repulsed  the  armies 
of  the  French.  This  victory,  so  gratifying  to  national 
pride,  was  perhaps  a  real  loss  to  Spain,  for  the. reforms 
which  prevailed  in  other  parts  of  Europe  were  never  car- 
ried out  in  Spain,  and  she  remains  even  yet  unliberated 
from  aristocratic  and  clerical  power. 

A  liberal  constitutional  government  was,  however,  set 
up  in  Spain  in  1812  by  the  Cortes;  but  in  1814  King 
Ferdinand  VII.,  aided  by  the  Spanish  aristocracy  and 
clergy,  was  able  to  overthrow  this  representative  govern- 
ment and  with  tyrannical  power  to  cast  reforms  aside. 
Fifty  thousand  people  were  imprisoned  for  their  liberal 
opinions,  the  Inquisition  was  restored,  the  Cortes  abolished, 
and  its  acts  nullified.  The  effect  of  these  acts  upon  the 
Philippines  will  be  noticed  presently. 


PERIOD  OF  EUROPEAN  REVOLUTION.  253 

Separation  of  the  Philippines  from  Mexico.  — The 
events  of  these  years  served  to  separate  the  Philippines 
from  their  long  dependency"  on  Mexico.  In  1813  the 
Cortes  decreed  the  suppression  of  the  subsidized  Acapulco 
galleon.  The  Mexican  trade  had  long  been  waning  and 
voyages  had  become  less  profitable.  The  last  of  the  gal- 
leons left  Manila  in  1811  and  returned  from  Acapulco  in 
1815,  never  again  to  attempt  this  classical  voyage. 

The  cessation  of  these  voyages  only  briefly  preceded  the 
complete  separation  from  America.  From  the  first  period 
of  settlement,  the  Philippines  had  in  many  respects  been 
a  dependency  of  the  New  World.  Mexico  had  until  late 
afforded  the  only  means  of  communication  with  the  mother- 
country,  the  only  land  of  foreign  trade.  Mexican  officials 
frequently  administered  the  government  of  the  Islands, 
and  Mexican  Indians  formed  the  larger  part  of  the  small 
standing  army  of  the  Philippines,  including  the  "  Regi- 
ment of  the  King."  As  we  have  seen,  a  large  subsidy, 
the  situado,  was  annually  drawn  from  the  Mexican 
treasury  to  assist  the  deficient  revenues  of  the  Philip- 
pines. 

Rebellion  of  the  South  American  Countries.  —  But 
the  grievances  of  the  Spanish  American  colonists  were 
very  great  and  very  real.  The  revolution  which  had  suc- 
cessively stirred  North  America  and  Europe  now  passed 
back  again  to  the  Spanish  countries  of  the  New  World, 
and  between  1810  and  1825  they  fought  themselves  free 
of  Spain.  The  last  of  the  colonies  from  which  the  Span- 
iards were  forced  to  retire  was  Peru.  Mexico  achieved 
her  separation  in  1820.  Spain  lost  every  possession  upon 
the  mainland  of  both  Americas,  and  the  only  vestiges  of 
her  once  vast  American  empire  were  the  rich  islands  of 
the  Greater  Antilles  —  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 


254  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Limited  Trade  with  the  Philippines.  —  The  Philip- 
pines were  now  forced  to  communicate  by  ship  directly 
with  Spain.  The  route  for  the  next  fifty  years  lay  by 
sailing-vessels  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  occu- 
pied from  four  to  six  months,  but  this  route  had  now  be- 
come practically  a  neutral  passage,  its  winds  and  currents 
were  well  understood,  and  it  was  annually  followed  by 
great  numbers  of  vessels  of  Europe,  England,  and  the 
United  States. 

Trade  was  still  limited  to  the  ships  of  the  Royal  Philip- 
pine Company,  and  this  shipping  monopoly  lasted  until 
1835,  when  a  new  era  in  the  commercial  and  industrial 
life  of  the  Philippines  opened.  An  English  commercial 
house  was  established  in  Manila  as  early  as  1809. 

Volcanic  Eruptions.  —  The  terrible  eruptions  of  Mount 
Taal,  the  last  of  which  occurred  in  1754,  were  followed  in 
the  next  century  by  the  destructive  activity  of  Mount 
Mayon.  In  1814  an  indescribable  eruption  of  ashes  and 
lava  occurred,  and  the  rich  hemp  towns  around  the  base 
of  this  mountain  were  destroyed.  Father  Francisco  Ara- 
goneses,  cura  of  Cagsaua,  an  eye-witness,  states  that 
twelve  thousand  people  perished;  in  the  church  of  Budiao 
alone  two  hundred  lay  dead.1 

Rebellions  in  the  Philippines.  —  The  Liberal  Spanish 
Cortes.  —  Two  revolts  in  the  Philippines  that  occurred  at 
this  period  are  of  much  importance  and  show  the  effect 
in  the  Philippines  ®i  the  political  changes  in  Spain.  In 
1810  the  liberal  Spanish  Cortes  had  declared  that  "the 
kingdoms  and  provinces  of  America  and  Asia  are,  and 
ought  to  have  been  always,  reputed  an  integral  part  of 
the  Spanish  monarchy,  and  for  that  same,  their  natives 

1  Jagor:  Viajes  por  Filipinas,  p.  81.  Translated  from  the  Ger- 
man. Madrid,  1895. 


PERIOD  OF  EUROPEAN  REVOLUTION.  255 

and  free  inhabitants  are  equal  in  rights  and  privileges  to 
those  of  the  Peninsula." 

This  important  declaration,  which  if  carried  out  would 
have  completely  revolutionized  Spain's  colonial  policy, 
was  published  in  the  Philippines,  and  with  that  remark- 
able and  interesting  facility  by  which  such  news  is  spread, 
even  among  the  least  educated  classes  of  Filipinos,  this 
proclamation  had  been  widely  disseminated  and  discussed 
throughout  the  Islands.  It  was  welcomed  by  the  Filipino 
with  great  satisfaction,  because  he  believed  it  exempted 
him  from  the  enforced  labor  of  the  polos  y  servicios.  These 
were  the  unremunerated  tasks  required  of  Filipinos  for 
the  construction  of  public  works,  bridges,  roads,  churches, 
and  convents. 

Effect  of  the  Repeal  of  the  Declaration  of  the 
Cortes.  —  King  Ferdinand  VII.  in  May,  1814,  on  his 
return  to  power,  as  we  have  seen,  published  the  famous 
decree  abolishing  constitutional  government  in  Spain  and 
annulling  all  the  acts  of  the  Cortes,  including  those  which 
aimed  to  liberalize  the  government  of  the  colonies.  These 
decrees,  when  published  in  the  Philippines,  appeared  to 
the  Filipinos  to  return  them  to  slavery,  and  in  many 
places  their  disaffection  turned  to  rebellion.  In  Ilokos 
twelve  hundred  men  banded  together,  sacked  conyeijts 
and  churches,  and  destroyed  the  books  and  documents  of 
the  municipal  archives.  Their  fury  seems  to  have  beenj 
particularly  directed  against  the  petty  tyrants  of  their  \ 
own  race,  the  cacique*  or  principalex. 

The  result  of  Spanish  civilization  in  the  Philippines  had 
been  to  educate,  and,  to  a  certain  degree,  ejmch^a  small 
class  of  Filipinos,  usually  known  as  distinguidos  or  the 
gente  ilustrada.  It  is  this  class  which  has  absorbed  the 
direction  of  municipal  and  local  affairs,  and  which  almost 


256  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

alone  of  the  Filipino  population  has  shared  in  those 
benefits  and  opportunities  which  civilized  life  should 
bring. 

The  vast  majority  of  the  population  have,  unfortunately, 
fallen  or  remained  in  a  dependent  and  almost  semi-servile 
position  beneath  the  principales.  In  Ilokos  this  subordi- 
nate class,  or  dependientes,  is  known  as  kailian,  and  it  was 
these  kailian  who  now  fell  upon  their  more  wealthy  mas- 
ters, burning  their  houses  and  destroying  their  property, 
and  in  some  instances  killing  them.  The  assignment  of 
compulsory  labor  had  been  left  to  the  principales  in  their 
positions  as  gobernadorcillos  and  cabezas  de  barangay, 
and  these  officials  had  unquestionably  abused  their  power 
and  had  drawn  down  upon  themselves  the  vengeance  of 
the  kailian.1 

This  revolt,  it  will  be  noticed,  was  primarily  directed 
neither  against  friars  nor  Spanish  authorities,  but  against 
the  unfortunate  social  order  which  the  rule  of  Spain  main- 
tained. 

A  Revolt  Lead  by  Spaniards.  —  A  plot,  with  far 
more  serious  motives,  took  place  in  1823.  The  official 
positions  in  the  regiments  and  provinces  had  previously 
been  held  almost  entirely  by  Spaniards  born  in  America 
or  the  Philippines.  The  government  now  attempted  to 
fill  these  positions  with  Spaniards  from  Spain.  The  offi- 
cials, deprived  of  their  positions,  incited  the  native  troops 
which  they  had  commanded,  into  a  revolt,  which  began 
in  the  walled  city  in  Manila.  About  eight  hundred  sol- 
diers followed  them,  and  they  gained  possession  of  the 
Cuartel  of  the  King,  of  the  Royal  Palace,  and  of  the  Ca- 
bildo,  but  they  failed  to  seize  the  fortress  of  Santiago. 


See  Estado  de  las  Islas  FUipinas  en  184%,  by  D.  Sinibaldo  de  Mas. 


PERIOD  OF  EUROPEAN  REVOLUTION.  257 

It  was  not  properly  a  revolt  of  Filipinos,  as  the  people 
were  not  involved  and  did  not  rise,  but  it  had  its  influence 
/n  inciting  later  insurrection. 

Insurrection  on  Bohol.  —  Since  the  insurrection  on 
Bohol  in  1744,  when  the  natives  had  killed  the  Jesuit 
missionaries,  a  large  part  of  the  island  had  been  practi- 
cally independent  under  the  leader  Dagohoy.  After  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  Recollects  were  placed  hi  special 
charge  of  those  towns  along  the  seacoast,  which  had  re- 
mained loyal  to  Spam.  An  effort  was  made  to  secure  the 
submission  of  the  rebels  by  the  proclamation  of  a  pardon, 
but  the  power  of  the  revolt  grew  rather  than  declined, 
until  hi  1827  it  was  determined  to  reduce  the  rebellion 
by  force.  An  expedition  of  thirty-two  hundred  men  was 
formed  in  Cebu,  and  in  April,  1828,  the  campaign  took 
place,  which  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  rebels  and  then- 
settlement  in  the  Christian  towns. 

The  New  Provinces  of  Benguet  and  Abra.  —  It  is  proper 
to  notice  also  the  slow  advances  of  Spanish  authority, 
which  began  to  be  made  about  this  time  among  the  heathen 
tribes  of  northern  Luzon.  These  fierce  and  powerful  tribes 
occupy  the  entire  range  of  the  Cordillera  Central.  Mis- 
sionary effort  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
had  succeeded  in  partly  Christianizing  the  tribes  along  the' 
river  Magat  in  Neuva  Vizcaya,  but  the  fierce,  head-hunting 
hillmen  remained  unsubdued  and  unchristianized. 

Between  1823  and  1829  the  mission  of  Pidigan,  under  an 
Augustinian  friar,  Christianized  some  thousands  of  the 
Tingians  of  the  river  Abra.  In  1829  an  expedition  of 
about  sixty  soldiers,  under  Don  Guillermo  Galvey,  pene- 
trated into  the  cool,  elevated  plateau  of  Benguet.  The 
diary  of  the  leader  recounts  the  difficult  march  up  the 
river  Cagaling  from  Aringay  and  their  delight  upon  emer- 


258  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

ging  from  the  jungle  and  cogon  upon  the  grassy,  pine- 
timbered  slopes  of  the  plateau.1 

They  saw  little  cultivated  valleys  and  small  clusters  of 
houses  and  splendid  herds  of  cattle,  carabaos,  and  horses, 
which  to  this  day  have  continued  to  enrich  the  people  of 
these  mountains.  At  times  they  were  surrounded  by  the 
yelling  bands  of  Igorots,  and  several  times  they  had  to 
repulse  attacks,  but  they  nevertheless  succeeded  in  reach- 
ing the  beautiful  circular  depression  now  known  as  the 
valley  of  La  Trinidad. 

The  Spaniards  saw  with  enthusiasm  the  carefully  sepa- 
rated and  walled  fields,  growing  camotes,  taro,  and  sugar- 
cane. The  village  of  about  five  hundred  houses  was 
partly  burned  by  the  Spaniards,  as  the  Igorots  continued 
hostile.  The  expedition  returned  to  the  coast,  having 
suffered  only  a  few  wounds.  The  comandancia  of  Ben- 
guet  was  not  created  until  1846,  in  which  year  also  Abra 
was  organized  as  a  province. 

1  This  account  is  printed  in  Mas'  "Informe"  (Estado,  etc.),  perhaps 
the  most  acute  and  intelligent  account  of  conditions  in  the  Islands 
made  by  any  writer  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Two  volumes  were 
published  in  Madrid  in  1842,  and  a  third  volume,  which  is  very  rare, 
was  secretly  circulated.  The  full  title  is  as  follows:  Estado  de  las 
I  skis  Filipinas  en  1842  escrtto  por  el  autor  del  Aristddemo,  etc. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

PROGRESS  AND  REVOLUTION. 
1837-1897. 

Progress  during  the  Last  Half-Century  of  Spanish  Rule.— • 
We  have  now  come  to  the  last  half-century  and  to  the 
last  phase  of  Spanish  rule.  In  many  respects  this  period 
was  one  of  economic  and  social  progress,  and  contained 
more  of  promise  than  any  other  in  the  history  of  the 
Islands.  During  this  last  half-century  the  Spanish  rulers 
had  numerous  plans  for  the  development  and  better  ad- 
ministration of  the  Philippines,  and,  in  spite  of  a  some- 
what wavering  policy  and  the  continual  sore  of  official 
peculation,  this  was  a  period  of  wonderful  advancement. 
Revolution  and  separation  from  Spain  came  at  last,  as 
revolutions  usually  do,  not  because  there  was  no  effort 
nor  movement  for  reform,  but  because  progress  was  so 
discouragingly  slow  and  so  irritatingly  blocked  by  estab- 
lished interests  that  desired  no  change. 

Effect  of  Opening  the  Port  of  Manila  to  Foreign  Trade. — 
Increase  in  Agriculture.  —  The  opening  of  the  port  of 
Manila  to  foreign  trade,  in  1837,  was  followed  by  a  period 
of  rising  industry  and  prosperity.  Up  to  this  tune  the 
archipelago  had  not  been  a  country  producing  for  export, 
but  the  freeing  of  trade  led  to  the  raising  of  great  har- 
vests for  foreign  export,  which  have  made  world-wide 
the  fame  of  certain  Philippine  productions.  Chief  among 
these  are  of  course  Manila  hemp  and  tobacco.  These 
were  followed  by  sugar  and  coffee_culture,  trie  latter  plant 
enriching  the  province  of  Batangas,  while  the  planting  of 

259 


260  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

new  cocoanut  groves  yearly  made  of  greater  importance 
the  yield  of  that  excellent  product,  copra.  These  rich 
merchandises  had  entered  very  little  into  commerce  during 
the  early  decades  of  the  century. 

Increase  in  Exports.  —  In  1810  the  entire  imports  of 
the  Philippines  amounted  in  value  to  5,329,000  dollars, 
but  more  than  half  of  this  consisted  of  silver  sent  from 
Mexico.  From  Europe  and  the  United  States  trade 
amounted  to  only  175,000  dollars.  The  exports  in  the 
same  year  amounted  to  4,795,000  dollars,  but  a  million 
and  a  half  of  this  was  Mexican  silver  exported  on  to 
China,  and  the  whole  amount  of  exports  to  Europe  and 
the  United  States  was  only  250,000  dollars. 

In  1831  the  exportation  of  hemp  amounted  to  only  346 
tons.  But  the  effect  upon  production  of  opening  Manila 
to  foreign  trade  is  seen  in  the  export  six  years  later  of 
2,585  tons.  By  1858  the  exportation  of  hemp  had  risen 
to  412,000  piculs,  or  27,500  tons.  Of  this  amount,  nearly 
two  thirds,  or  298,000  piculs,  went  to  the  United  States. 
At  this  time  the  North  Atlantic  seaboard  of  America 
was  the  center  of  a  most  active  ship-building  and  ship- 
carrying  trade.  The  American  flag  was  conspicuous  among 
the  vessels  that  frequented  these  Eastern  ports,  and  "  Ma- 
nila hemp"  was  largely  sought  after  by  American  sea- 
men to  supply  the  shipyards  at  home.  Of  sugar,  the 
export  in  1858  amounted  to  557,000  piculs,  of  which  more 
than  half  went  to  Great  Britain. 

After  1814  general  permission  had  been  given  to  for- 
eigners to  establish  trading-houses  in  Manila,  and  by  1858 
there  were  fifteen  such  establishments,  of  which  seven 
were  English  and  three  American.1 


Bowring:  A  Visit  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  p.  387. 


PROGRESS  AND  REVOLUTION.    1837-1897.          261 

Other  Ports  Opened  to  Foreign  Commerce.  —  In  1855 
three  other  ports  were  opened  to  foreign  commerce  — 
Sual  in  Pangasinan  on  the  Gulf  of  Lingaye"n,  Iloilo,  and 
Zamboanga.  In  1863,  Cebu  likewise  was  made  an  open 
port.  The  exports  of  Sual  consisted  only  of  rice,  and  hi 
spite  of  its  exceptional  harbor  this  port  never  flourished, 
and  is  to-day  no  more  than  an  unfrequented  village. 

Iloilo  exported  leaf  tobacco,  sugar,  sapan  or  dyewood  (an 
industry  long  ago  ruined),  hemp,  and  hides.  Zamboanga 
through  the  Chinese  had  a  small  trade  with  Jolo  and  the 
Moro  Islands,  and  exported  the  produce  of  these  seas  — 
sea-slug  (tripang),  shark  fins,  mother-of-pearl,  tortoise 
shell,  etc.  For  some  years  the  customs  laws  in  these 
ports  were  trying  and  vexatious,  and  prevented  full  ad- 
vantage being  taken  of  the  privileges  of  export;  but  in 
1869  this  service  was,  by  royal  decree,  greatly  liberalized 
and  improved.  Since  that  date  the  Philippines  have 
steadily  continued  to  grow  in  importance  in  the  com- 
mercial world. 

The  Form  of  Government  under  the  Spanish.  —  General 
Improvements.  —  This  is  perhaps  a  convenient  place  to 
examine  for  the  last  time  the  political  system  which  the 
Spaniards  maintained  in  the  country.  In  1850  there  were 
thirty-four  provinces  and  two  politico-military  command- 
ancias.  In  these  provinces  the  Spanish  administration 
was  still  vested  solely  in  the  alcalde  mayor,  who  until 
after  1886  was  both  governor  or  executive  officer  and 
the  judge  or  court  for  the  trial  of  provincial  cases  and 
crimes. 

Many  of  the  old  abuses  which  had  characterized  the 
government  of  the  alcaldes  had  been  at  least  partially 
remedied.  After  1844  they  had  no  longer  the  much- 
abused  monopoly  privilege  of  trade,  nor  had  they  as  free 


262  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

a  hand  in  controlling  the  labor  of  the  inhabitants;  but 
opportunities  for  illegal  enrichment  existed  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  treasury  and  tax  system,  and  these 
opportunities  were  not  slighted.  Up  to  the  very  end 
of  Spanish  rule  the  officials,  high  and  low,  are  accused  of 
stealing  public  money. 

The  Pueblo.  —  The  unit  of  administration  was  the 
pueblo,  or  township,  which  ordinarily  embraced  many 
square  miles  of  country  and  contained  numerous  villages, 
or  "barrios."  The  center  of  the  town  was  naturally  the 
site  where  for  centuries  had  stood  the  great  church  and 
the  convent  of  the  missionary  friars.  These  locations  had 
always  been  admirably  chosen,  and  about  them  grew  up 
the  market  and  trading-shops  of  Chinese  and  the  fine  and 
durable  homes  of  the  more  prosperous  Filipinos  and  mes- 
tizos. 

About  1860  the  government  began  to  concern  itself 
with  the  construction  of  public  buildings  and  improve- 
ments, and  the  result  is  seen  in  many  pueblos  in  the 
finely  laid-out  plazas  and  well-built  municipal  edifices 
grouped  about  the  square  —  the  "tribunal,"  or  town 
house,  the  jail,  and  the  small  but  significant  schoolhouses. 
The  government  of  the  town  was  vested  in  a  "goberna- 
dorcillo"  and  a  council,  each  of  the  "  concejales"  usually 
representing  a  hamlet  or  barrio. 

But  the  Spanish  friar,  who  in  nearly  every  pueblo  was 
the  parish  curate,  continued  to  be  the  paternal  guardian 
and  administrator  of  the  pueblo.  In  general,  no  matter 
was  too  minute  for  his  dictation.  Neither  gobernador- 
eillo  nor  councillors  dared  act  in  opposition  to  his  wishes, 
and  the  alcalde  of  the  province  was  careful  to  keep  on 
friendly  terms  and  leave  town  affairs  largely  to  his  dicta- 
tion. The  friar  was  the  local  inspector  of  public  instruc- 


PROGRESS  AND  REVOLUTION.    1837-1897.  263 

tion  and  ever  vigilant  to  detect  and  destroy  radical  ideas. 
To  the  humble  Filipino,  the  friar  was  the  visible  and 
only  representative  of  Spanish  authority. 

The  Revolt  of  1841. — Repression  of  the  People  by 
the  Friars.  —  Unquestionably  in  the  past,  the  work  of 
the  friars  had  been  of  very  great  value;  but  men  as  well 
as  institutions  may  lose  their  usefulness,  as  conditions' 
change,  and  the  time  was  now  approaching  when  the 
autocratic  and  paternal  regime  of  the  friars  no  longer 
satisfied  the  Filipinos.  Their  zeal  was  no  longer  disinter- 
ested, and  their  work  had  become  materialized  by  the 
possession  of  the  vast  estates  upon  which  their  spiritual 
charges  lived  and  labored  as  tenants  or  dependents.  •  The 
policy  of  the  religious  orders  had,  in  fact,  become  one  of 
repression,  and  as  the  aspirations  of  the  Filipinos  in- 
creased, the  friars,  filled  with  doubt  and  fear,  tried  to 
draw  still  tighter  the  bonds  of  their  own  authority,  and 
viewed  with  growing  distrust  the  rising  ambition  of  the 
people. 

Apolinario  de  la  Cruz. —  The  unfortunate  revolution 
of  1841  shows  the  wayward  and  misdirected  enthusiasm 
of  the  Filipino;  and  the  unwisdom  of  the  friars.  Apoli- 
nario  de  la  Cruz,  a  young  Filipino,  a  native  of  Lukban, 
Tayabas,  came  up  to  Manila  filled  with  the  ambition  to 
lead  a  monastic  life,  and  engaged  hi  theological  studies. 
By  his  attendance  upon  lectures  and  sermons  and  by  imi- 
tation of  the  friar  preachers  of  Manila,  Apolinario  became, 
himself,  quite  an  orator,  and,  as  subsequent  events  showed, 
was  able  to  arouse  great  numbers  of  his  own  people  by 
his  appeals. 

It  was  his  ambition  to  enter  one  of  the  regular  mon- 
astic orders,  but  this  religious  privilege  was  never  granted 
to  Filipinos,  and  he  was  refused.  He  then  entered  a 


264  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

brotherhood  known  as  the  Cofradia,  or  Brotherhood  of 
San  Juan  de  Dios,  composed  entirely  of  Filipinos.  After 
some  years  in  this  brotherhood,  he  returned  in  1840  to 
Tayabas  and  founded  the  Cofradia  de  San  Jose,  his  aim 
being  to  form  a  special  cult  in  honor  of  Saint  Joseph  and 
the  Virgin.  For  this  he  requested  authorization  from 
Manila.  It  was  here  that  the  lack  of  foresight  of  the 
friars  appeared. 

The  Opposition  of  the  Friars. —  Instead  of  sympa- 
thizing with  these  religious  aspirations,  in  which,  up  to 
this  point,  there  seems  to  have  been  nothing  heretical, 
they  viewed  the  rise  of  a  Filipino  religious  leader  with 
alarm.  Their  policy  never  permitted  to  the  Filipino  any 
position  that  was  not  wholly  subordinate.  They  believed 
that  the  permanence  of  Spanish  power  in  these  islands  lay 
in  suppressing  any  latent  ability  for  leadership  in  the  Fili- 
pino himself.  Their  influence,  consequently,  was  thrown 
against  Apolinario,  and  the  granting  of  the  authority  for 
his  work.  They  secured  not  only  a  condemnation  of  his 
plan,  but  an  order  for  the  arrest  and  imprisonment  of  all 
who  should  attend  upon  his  preaching. 

Apolinario  Forced  to  Rebel.  —  Apolinario  thereupon 
took  refuge  in  independent  action.  His  movement  had 
already  become  a  strong  one,  and  his  followers  numbered 
several  thousand  people  of  Laguna,  Tayabas,  and  Batangas. 
The  governor  of  Tayabas  province,  Don  Joaquin  Ortega, 
organized  an  expedition  to  destroy  the  schism.  Accom- 
panied by  two  Franciscan  friars,  he  attacked  Apolinario 
in  the  month  of  October,  1840,  and  was  defeated  and 
killed.  One  account  says  that  Apolinario  was  assisted  by 
a  band  of  Negritos,  whose  bowmanship  was  destructive. 
There  are  still  a  very  few  of  these  little  blacks  hi  the 
woods  in  the  vicinity  of  Lukban. 


PROGRESS  AND  REVOLUTION.    1837-1807.  265 

Apolinario  was  now  in  the  position  of  an  open  rebel, 
and  he  fortified  himself  in  the  vicinity  of  Alitao,  where 
he  built  a  fort  and  chapel. 

His  religious  movement  became  distinctly  independent 
and  heretical.  A  church  was  formed,  of  which  he  was 
first  elected  archbishop  and  then  supreme  pontiff.  He- 
was  also  charged  with  having  assumed  the  title  of  "  King 
of  the  Tagalogs." 

Finally  a  force  under  the  new  alcalde,  Vital,  and  General 
Huet  early  in  November  attacked  Apolinario's  stronghold, 
and  after  a  fierce  struggle  defeated  the  revolutionists. 
About  a  thousand  Filipinos  perished  hi  the  final  battle. 
Apolinario  was  captured  and  executed.  He  was  then 
twenty-seven  years  of  age. 

Organization  of  Municipal  Governments.  —  In  1844 
an  able  and  liberal  governor,  General  Claveria,  arrived,  and 
remained  until  the  end  of  the  year  1849.  A  better  or- 
ganization of  the  provincial  governments,  which  we  have 
seen,  followed  Claveria 's  entrance  into  office,  and  in  Octo- 
ber, 1847,  came  the  important  decree,  organizing  the  mu- 
nicipalities in  the  form  which  we  have  already  described, 
and  which  remained  without  substantial  modification  to 
the  end  of  Spanish  rule,  and  which  has  to  a  considerable 
extent  been  followed  in  the  Municipal  Code  framed  by  the 
American  government. 

Subjection  of  the  Igorot  Tribes.  —  With  Claveria  be- 
gan a  decisive  policy  of  conquest  among  the  Igorot 
tribes  of  northern  Luzon,  and  by  the  end  of  Spanish  rule 
these  mountains  were  dotted  with  cuartels  and  missions 
for  the  control  of  these  unruly  tribes.  The  province 
of  Nueva  Vizcaya  has  been  particularly  subject  to  the 
raids  of  these  head-hunting  peoples.  Year  after  year  the 
Christian  towns  of  the  plains  had  yielded  a  distressing 


266  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

sacrifice  of  life  to  satisfy  the  savage  ceremonials  of  the 
Igorots.1 

In  1847,  Claveria  nominated  as  governor  of  Nueva 
Vizcaya,  Don  Mariano  Ozcariz,  whose  severe  and  telling 
conquests  for  the  first  time  checked  these  Igorot  out- 
rages and  made  possible  the  development  of  the  great 
valleys  of  northern  Luzon. 

Spanish  Settlements  on  Mindanao.  —  Zcuiriboanga.  — 
With  Claveria's  governorship  we  enter  also  upon  the  last 
phase  of  Moro  piracy.  In  spite  of  innumerable  expedi- 
tions, Spain's  occupation  of  South  Mindanao  and  the  Sulu 
archipelago  was  limited  to  the  presidio  of  Zamboanga.  She 
had  occupied  this  strategic  point  continuously  since  the 
reestablishment  of  Spanish  power  in  1763.  The  great  stone 
fort,  which  still  stands,  had  proved  impregnable  to  Moro 
attack,  and  had  long  been  unmolested. 

Distributed  for  a  distance  of  some  miles  over  the  rich 
lands  at  this  end  of  the  Zamboanga  peninsula  was  a  Chris- 
tian population,  which  had  grown  up  largely  from  the  de- 
scendants of  rescued  captives  of  the  Moros.  Coming 
originally  from  all  parts  of  the  Bisayas,  Calamianes,  and 
Luzon,  this  mixed  population  has  grown  to  have  a  some- 
what different  character  from  that  of  any  other  part  of 
the  Islands.  A  corrupt  Spanish  dialect,  known  as  the 
"Chabucano,"  has  become  the  common  speech,  the  only 
instance  in  the  Philippines  where  the  native  dialect  has 
been  supplanted.  This  population,  loyal  and  devotedly 
Catholic,  never  failed  to  sustain  the  defense  of  this  iso- 


1  The  reports  of  the  Dominican  missionaries  of  Nueva  Vizcaya  and 
Isabela  show  the  extent  and  persistence  of  these  raids.  (See  the  files 
of  the  missionary  publication,  El  Correo  Sino-A  nnamita,  and  also  the 
work  by  Padre  Buenaventura  Campa,  Los  Mayoyaos  y  la  Raza  Ifugao, 
Madrid,  1895. 


PROGRESS  AND  REVOLUTION.    1837-1897.          267 

lated  Spanish  outpost,  and  contributed  brave  volunteers 
to  every  expedition  against  the  Moro  islands. 

Activity  of  Other  Nations.  —  But  Spain's  maintenance 
of  Zamboanga  was  insufficient  to  sustain  her  claims  of 
sovereignty  over  the  Sulu  and  Tawi-Tawi  groups.  Both 
the  Dutch  and  English  planned  various  moves  for  their 
occupation  and  acquisition,  and  in  1844  a  French  fleet 
entered  the  archipelago  and  concluded  a  treaty  with  the 
sultan  of  Sulu  for  the  cession  of  the  island  of  Basilan  for 
the  sum  of  one  million  dollars.  Writings  of  the  French 
minister  and  historian,  M.  Guizot,  show  that  France  hoped, 
by  the  acquisition  of  this  island,  to  obtain  a  needed, naval 
Jaase  in  the  East  and  found  a  great  commercial  port  within 
the  sphere  of  Chinese  trade.1 

Conquest  of  the  Gulf  of  Davao.  —  But  this  step 
roused  the  Spaniards  to  activity  and  the  occupation  of 
the  island.  A  naval  vessel  subdued  the  towns  along 
the  north  coast,  and  then  proceeding  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  secured  from  the  sultan  of  Magindanao  the 
cession  of  the  great  Gulf  of  Davao.  Spain  took  no  imme- 
diate steps  to  occupy  this  gulf,  but  in  1847  a  Spaniard, 
Don  Jose  Oyanguran,  proposed  to  the  governor,  Claveria, 
to  conquer  the  region  at  his  own  expense,  if  he  could  be 
furnished  with  artillery  and  munitions  and  granted  a  ten 
years'  government  of  Davao,  with  the  exclusive  privilege 
of  trade. 

His  offer  was  accepted  by  the  governor  and  the  Audi- 
encia,  and  Oyanguran  organized  a  company  to  secure 
funds  for  the  undertaking.  In  two  years'  time  he  had 
subdued  the  coast  regions  of  this  gulf,  expelled  the  pirates 
who  harbored  there,  and  founded  the  settlement  of  Nueva 


1  Montero  y  Vidal:   Historia  de  Filipinas,  vol.  III.,  p.  99. 


268  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Vergara.  He  seems  to  have  been  making  progress  toward 
the  conquest  and  commercial  exploitation  of  this  region, 
when  jealous  attacks  in  Manila  induced  Governor  Urbiz- 
tondo  to  cancel  his  privilege  and  to  relieve  him  by  an 
officer  of  the  government. 

In  subsequent  years  the  Jesuits  had  a  few  mission 
stations  here  and  made  a  few  converts  among  the  Bago- 
bos;  but  the  region  is  still  an  unsubdued  and  unutilized 
country,  whose  inhabitants  are  mainly  pagan  tribes,  and 
whose  rich  agricultural  possibilities  lie  undeveloped  and 
unclaimed. 

The  Samal  Pirates.  —  The  Sulu.  —  The  piratical  in- 
habitants of  the  Sulu  archipelago  are  made  of  two  dis- 
tinct Malayan  peoples  —  the  Sulu  (or  Sulug),  and  the 
Samal,  who  are  known  throughout  Malaysia  as  the  "  Bajau" 
or  "Orang  laut"  (Men  of  the  Sea).  The  former  appear  to 
be  the  older  inhabitants.  They  occupy  the  rich  and  popu- 
lous island  of  Jolo  and  some  islands  of  the  Siassi  group, 
immediately  south. 

The  Samal. — The  Samal,  or  Bajau,  are  stated  to 
have  come  originally  from  Johore.  Many  of  them  live 
almost  exclusively  in  their  boats,  passing  their  lives  from 
birth  to  death  upon  the  sea.  They  are  found  throughout 
most  parts  of  Malaysia,  the  position  of  their  little  fleets 
changing  with  the  shifting  of  the  monsoons.  In  the  Sulu 
archipelago  and  a  few  points  in  South  Mindanao,  many  of 
these  Samal  have  shifted  their  homes  from  their  boats  to 
the  shore.  Their  villages  are  built  on  piles  over  the  sea, 
and  on  many  of  the  low  coral  reefs  south  of  Siassi  and 
east  of  Tawi-Tawi  there  are  great  towns  or  settlements 
which  have  apparently  been  in  existence  a  long  while. 

Fifty  years  ago  the  Samal  were  very  numerous  in  the 
many  islands  between  Jolo  and  Basilan,  and  this  group  is 


PROGRESS  AND  REVOLUTION.     1837-1897.  269 

still  known  as  the  Islas  Samales.  Like  the  Sulu  and  other 
Malays,  the  Samal  are  Mohammedans,  and  scarcely  less 
persistent  pirates  than  their  fellow-Malays.  With  the  de- 
cline of  piratical  power  among  the  Sulu  of  Jolo,  the  focus 
of  piracy  shifted  to  these  settlements  of  the  Samal,  and  in 
the  time  of  Claveria  the  worst  centers  were  the  islands  of 
Balangingi  and  Tonkil,  lying  just  north  of  the  island 
of  Jolo.  From  here  pirate  and  slaving  raids  upon  the 
Bisayan  Islands  continued  to  be  made,  and  nearly  every 
year  towns  were  sacked  and  burned  and  several  hundred 
unfortunate  captives  carried  away.  The  captives  were 
destined  for  slavery,  and  regular  marts  existed  for  this 
traffic  at  Jolo  and  on  the  Bay  of  Sandakan  in  Borneo. 

Arrival  of  Steam  Warships.  —  In  1848  the  Philip- 
pines secured  the  first  steam  war  vessels.  These  were  the 
"  Magallanes,"  the  "  Elcano,"  and  the  "  Reina  de  Castilla." 
They  were  destined  to  revolutionize  Moro  relations. 

The  Destruction  of  the  Samal  Forts.  —  Hitherto  it 
had  been  possible  for  the  great  Moro  war  praus,  manned 
by  many  oarsmen,  to  drop  their  masts  on  the  approach 
of  an  armed  sailing-vessel,  and,  turning  toward  the  "eye 
of  the  wind,"  where  no  sailing-ship  could  pursue,  row 
calmly  away  from  danger.  Steam  alone  was  effective  in 
combating  these  sea-wolves.  Claveria  took  these  newly 
arrived  ships,  and  with  a  strong  force  of  infantry,  which 
was  increased  by  Zamboangueno  volunteers,  he  entered 
the  Samal  group  in  February,  1848,  and  landed  on  the 
island  of  Balangingi. 

There  were  four  fortresses  situated  in  the  mangrove 
marshes  of  the  island.  These,  in  spite  of  a  desperate 
resistance,  were  carried  by  the  infantry  and  Zamboangue- 
nos,  and  the  pirates  scattered.  The  conduct  of  the  cam- 
paign appears  to  have  been  admirable  and  the  fighting 


270  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

heroic.  The  Moros  were  completely  overwhelmed;  450 
dead  were  burned  or  interred;  124  pieces  of  artillery — 
for  the  most  part,  the  small  brass  cannon  called  "lan- 
takas"  — were  captured,  and  150  Moro  boats  were  de- 
stroyed. The  Spaniards  cut  down  the  cocoanut  groves, 
and  with  spoil  that  included  such  rich  pirate  loot  as  silks, 
silver  vases,  ornaments,  and  weapons  of  war,  and  with 
over  two  hundred  prisoners  and  three  hundred  rescued 
captives,  returned  to  Zamboanga.  This  was  the  most  sig- 
nal victory  ever  won  by  Europeans  in  conflict  with  Malay 
piracy.  The  effectiveness  of  this  campaign  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  while  in  the  preceding  year  450  Filipinos  had 
suffered  capture  at  the  hands  of  Moro  pirates,  in  1848  and 
the  succeeding  year  there  was  scarcely  a  depredation. 
But  in  1850  a  pirate  squadron  from  Tonkil,  an  island 
adjacent  to  Balangingi,  fell  upon  Samar  and  Kamagin. 
Fortunately,  Governor  Urbiztondo,  who  had  succeeded 
Claveria,  vigorously  continued  the  policy  of  his  predeces- 
sor, and  an  expedition  was  promptly  dispatched  which 
destroyed  the  settlements  and  strongholds  on  Tonkil. 

Destruction  of  the  Moro  Forts  at  Jolo.  —  A  year 
later  war  broke  out  again  with  Jolo,  and  after  a  varied 
interchange  of  negotiations  and  hostilities,  the  Spaniards 
stormed  and  took  the  town  in  February,  1851.  The  ques- 
tion of  permanent  occupation  of  this  important  site  was 
debated  by  a  council  of  war,  but  their  forces  appearing 
unequal  to  the  task,  the  forts  of  the  Moros  were  destroyed, 
and  the  expedition  returned.  Jolo  is  described  at  this 
tune  as  a  very  strongly  guarded  situation.  Five  forts  and 
a  double  line  of  trenches  faced  the  shore.  The  Moro  town 
is  said  to  have  contained  about  seven  thousand  souls, 
and  there  was  a  barrio  of  Chinese  traders,  who  numbered 
about  five  hundred. 


PROGRESS  AND  REVOLUTION.     1837-1897.  271 

Treaty  iritJt  the  Sultan  of  Sulu.  —  A  few  months  later 
the  governor  of  Zamboanga  concluded  a  treaty  with  the 
sultan  of  Sulu  by  which  the  archipelago  was  to  be  con- 
sidered an  incorporated  part  of  the  Spanish  possessions. 
The  sultan  bound  himself  to  make  no  further  treaties 
wit  h  or  cessions  to  foreign  powers,  to  suppress  piracy,  4 
and  to  fly  the  Spanish  flag.  The  Moros  were  guaranteed 
the  practice  of  their  religion,  the  succession  of  the  sultan 
and  his  descendants  in  the  established  order,  boats  of 
Jolo  were  to  enjoy  the  same  trading  privileges  in  Spanish 
ports  as  other  Filipino  vessels,  and  the  sultan  retained  the 
right  to  all  customs  duties  on  foreign  trading-vessels. 
Finally,  "  in  compensation  for  the  damages  of  war, "  the 
sultan  was  to  be  paid  an  annual  subsidy  of  1,500  pesos 
and  600  pesos  each  to  three  datos  and  360  pesos  to  a 
sherif . * 

The  End  of  Malay  Piracy.  —  In  these  very  years  that 
Malay  piracy  was  receiving  such  severe  blows  from  the 
recuperating  power  and  activity  of  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment on  the  north,  it  was  crushed  also  from  the  south  by 
the  merciless  warfare  of  a  great  Englishman,  the  Raja 
James  Brooke  of  Sarawak.  The  sources  of  pirate  depre- 
dation were  Magindanao,  the  Sulu  archipelago,  and  the 
north  and  west  coasts  of  the  great  island  of  Borneo.  We 
have  seen  how  these  fleets,  century  after  century,  swept 
northward  and  wasted  with  fire  and  murder  the  fair  islands 
of  the  Philippines. 

But  this  archipelago  was  not  alone  in  suffering  these 
ravages.  The  peaceful  trading  inhabitants  of  the  great 
island  groups  to  the  south  were  persistently  visited  and 
despoiled.  Moreover,  as  the  Chinese  trade  by  the  Cape  of 

1  Montero  y  Vidal:  Historia  de  Filipinos,  vol.  III.,  p.  209.  The 
document  is  given  in  Appendix  4  of  the  same  volume. 


272  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Good  Hope  route  became  established  in  the  first  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  these  pirates  became  a  great 
menace  to  European  shipping.  They  swarmed  the  China 
Sea,  and  luckless  indeed  was  the  ship  carried  too  far  east- 
ward on  its  course.  Every  American  schoolboy  is  familiar 
with  the  stories  of  fierce  hand-to-hand  struggles  with 
Malay  pirates,  which  have  come  down  from  those  years 
when  the  American  flag  was  seen  everywhere  in  the  ports 
of  the  Far  East. 

About  1839  a  young  English  officer,1  who  had  been  in 
the  Indian  service,  James  Brooke,  having  armed  and 
equipped  a  yacht  of  about  140  tons,  set  sail  for  the  coast 
of  Borneo,  with  the  avowed  intent  of  destroying  Malay 
piracy  and  founding  an  independent  state.  In  all  the 
romantic  stories  of  the  East  there  is  no  career  of  greater 
daring  than  that  of  this  man.  In  1841,  having  engaged 
in  several  bloody  exploits,  Brooke  forced  from  the  sultan 
of  Borneo  the  cession  of  Sarawak,  with  the  government 
vested  in  himself  as  an  independent  raja. 

Brooke  now  devoted  himself  with  merciless  severity  to 
the  destruction  of  the  pirates  in  the  deep  bays  and  swampy 
rivers,  whence  they  had  so  long  made  their  excursions. 
Later  he  was  assisted  by  the  presence  of  the  English  man- 
of-war  "  Dido,"  and  in  1847  the  sultan  of  Brunei  ceded  to 
Great  Britain  the  island  of  Labuan.  In  1849,  Brooke 
visited  Zamboanga  in  the  English  man-of-war  "Mosander/ 
and  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  sultan  of  Sulu,  which 
greatly  alarmed  the  Spaniards. 

Brooke's  private  correspondence  shows  that  he  was  am- 
bitious and  hopeful  of  acquiring  for  England  parts  of  the 
Dutch  possessions  in  the  south  and  the  Spanish  Philip- 


See  Rajah  Brooke,  by  Sir  Spencer  St.  John,  London,  1899. 


PROGRESS  AND  REVOLUTION.     1837-1897.  273 

pines  in  the  north;  but  his  plans  were  never  followed  up 
by  England,  although  in  1887  North  Borneo  was  ceded  to 
an  English  company,  and  all  the  northern  and  eastern 
portions  of  this  great  island  are  now  under  English  pro- 
tection.1 

Liberal  Ideas  among  the  Filipinos.  —  The  release  from 
Moro  piracy,  the  opening  of  foreign  commerce,  and  the 
development  of  agricultural  production  were  rapidly  bring- 
ing about  a  great  change  in  the  aspirations  of  the  Filipino 
people  themselves.  Nearly  up  to  the  middle  of.  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  Filipinos  had  felt  the  full  effect  of 
isolation  from  the  life  and  thought  of  the  modern  world. 
But  the  revolutionary  changes  in  Europe  and  the  struggles 
for  constitutional  government  in  Spain  had  their  influ- 
ence, even  in  these  far-away  Spanish  possessions.  Span-] 
iards  of  liberal  ideas,  some  of  them  in  official  positions,! 
found  their  way  to  the  Islands,  and  an  agitation  began, 
originating  among  Spaniards  themselves,  against  the  pater- 
nal powers  of  the  friars. 

Influence  of  the  Press.  —  The  growth  of  periodic  liter- 
ature accelerated  this  liberalizing  movement.  The  press, 
though  suffering  a  severe  censorship,  has  played  a  large 
part  in  shaping  recent  thought  in  these  islands  and  in  , 
communicating  to  the  Filipino  people  those  ideas  and 
purposes  which  ever  inspire  and  elevate  men.2  The  first 
newspaper  to  make  its  appearance  hi  the  Philippines  was 
in  1822  —  "El  Philantropo  ";  but  journalism  assumed  no  , 

1  Keppel:   Expedition  to  Borneo  of  H.  M.  S.  Dido  for  the  Suppres- 
sion of  Piracy,  with   extracts  from  the  Journal  of  James  Brooke,  Esq. 
2  vols.     London,  1846.     Keppel:    A  Visit  to  the  Indian  Archipelago  in 
H.  M.  S.  Mceandar.     2  vols.     London,  1853. 

2  Spain  established  a  permanent  commission  of  censorship  in  1856. 
It  was  composed  of  eight  persons,  one  half  nominated  by  the  gov- 
ernor and  one  half  by  the  archbishop. 


274  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

real  importance  until  the  forties,  when  there  were  founded 
"Semanario  Filipino"  (1843),  and  almost  immediately 
after  several  others  —  "El  Amigo  de  Pais"  (1845),  "La 
Estrella"  (1846),  and  "La  Esperanza"  (1847),  the  first 
daily.  These  were  followed  by  "Diario  de  Manila" 
(1848);  in  1858  "El  Comercio"  appeared,  the  oldest  of 
the  papers  still  in  existence.1 

Papers  conducted  by  Filipinos  and  in  the  Filipino 
tongues  are  of  more  recent  origin,  but  these  early  Spanish 
periodicals  had  a  real  effect  upon  the  Filipinos  themselves, 
training  up  a  class  familiar  with  the  conduct  of  journal- 
ism and  preparing  a  way  for  the  very  influential  work  of 
the  Filipino  press  in  recent  years. 

Establishment  of  an  Educational  System.  —  Return  of 
the  Jesuits. —  But  more  important  than  all  other  influ- 
ences was  the  opening  of  education  to  Filipinos.  In  1852 
a  royal  decree  authorized  the  Jesuits  to  return  to  the 
Philippines.  The  conditions  under  which  they  came  back 
were  that  they  should  devote  themselves  solely  to  missions 
in  the  unoccupied  fields  of  Mindanao,  and  to  the  higher 
education  of  the  Filipinos. 

The  Public  Schools.  —  In  1863,  Concha,  the  Spanish 
minister  of  war  and  colonies  (Ultramar),  decreed  the 
system  of  public  primary  instruction.  A  primary  school 
for  boys  and  one  for  girls  was  to  be  established  in  each 
pueblo  of  the  Islands.  In  these  schools,  instruction  was 
to  be  given  in  the  Spanish  language.  A  superior  commis- 
sion of  education  was  formed,  which  consisted  of  the  gov- 
ernor, the  archbishop,  and  seven  other  members  added  by 
the  governor  himself. 

The   system  was  not  secular,  for  it  primarily  was  de- 


El  Periodismo  Filipino,  por  W.  E.  Retana.     Madrid,  1895. 


PROGRESS  AND  REVOLUTION.    1837-1897. 


275 


voted  to  the  teaching  of  religious  doctrine.  The  Spanish 
friar,  the  pueblo  curate,  was  the  local  inspector  of  schools 
and  practically  directed  their  conduct.  It  was  not  wholly 
a  free  system,  because  tuition  was  required  of  all  but  the 
poorest  children;  nor  was  it  an  adequate  system,  because, 
even  when  most  complete,  it  reached  only  a  small  pro- 
portion of  the  children  of  a  parish,  and  these  very  largely 


Cathedral,  Manila. 

were  of  the  well-to-do  families.     And  yet  this  system,  for 
what  it  accomplished,  is  deserving  of  praise. 

Besides  the  church,  the  convent,  and  the  tribunal, 
nearly  every  town  in  the  Philippines,  toward  the  close  of 
Spanish  rule,  had  also,  hi  the  public  plaza,  its  public 
school  buildings  for  boys  and  for  girls.  In  these  towns  a 
number  of  Filipinos  were  taught  to  converse  hi  the  Span- 
ish language  and  at  least  the  rudiments  of  Spanish  edu- 


276  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

cation.  But  this  system  did  not  give  opportunity  for 
education  to  the  little  child  of  the  humble  fisherman  and 
the  husbandman. 

The  Manila  Normal  School.  —  To  prepare  Filipino 
teachers  to  do  this  work  of  primary  instruction,  a  decree  of 
1863  established  the  Manila  Normal  School.  In  charge  of 
the  Jesuits,  this  school  was  inaugurated  in  January,  1865. 
And  about  the  same  date  the  government  decreed  the 
foundation  of  the  Jesuit  "Ateneo  Municipal"  for  higher 
instruction  in  the  classics  and  sciences  that  should  conduct 
the  student  to  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts.  The  influ- 
ence of  these  institutions  upon  the  development  of  the 
Filipino  has  been  remarkable.  In  one  or  the  other  of 
them  have  been  trained  nearly  all  of  those  young  men 
who  in  recent  years  have  stirred  the  Filipino  people  to 
wide  ambitions  and  demands.  At  the  same  time  the  ex- 
cellent Jesuit  observatory,  which  has  done  such  important 
work  in  meteorology,  was  'established  hi  charge  of  Padre 
Faura. 

Increase  in  Spanish  Population.  —  The  opening  of  the 
Suez  -Canal  in  1869  brought  immense  changes  to  the  Is- 
lands. Previous  to  this  date  Spanish  residents  had  been 
few.  Almost  the  only  class  deeply  interested  in  the 
Islands  and  permanently  established  here  had  been  the 
friars.  But  with  communication  by  steamer  in  thirty 
days  from  Barcelona  to  Manila,  a  new  interest  was  felt 
by  Spaniards  in  the  Philippines,  though  unfortunately 
this  interest  was  greatest  among  the  politicians.  Some  of 
the  projects  planned  and  decreed  can  only  be  regarded 
as  visionary  and  beyond  the  point  of  serviceability,  and 
others,  more  unfortunately  still,  had  for  their  purpose  the 
creation  of  offices  and  emoluments  for  Peninsula  politi- 
cians; but  they  all  contributed  to  bring  to  an  end  the 


PROGRESS  AND  REVOLUTION.    18S7-1897.          277 

paternal  government  under  which  there  was  no  prospect 
of  further  enlightenment  or  progress  for  the  Filipino. 

Increase  in  the  Number  of  Wealthy,  Educated  Filipinos.  — 
The  Filipino  had  now  become  embarked  upon  a  new  cur- 
rent of  intellectual  experience  —  a  course  of  enlighten- 
ment which  has  been  so  full  of  unexpected  development, 
and  which  has  already  carried  him  so  far  from  his  ancestor 
of  one  hundred  years  ago,  that  we  can  not  say  what  ad- 
vance another  generation  or  two  may  bring.  Throughout 
all  the  towns  of  the  Islands  a  class  was  rapidly  growing 
up  to  which  the  new  industries  had  brought  wealth.  Their 
means  enabled  them  to  build  spacious  and  splendid  homes 
of  the  fine,  hard  woods  of  the  Philippines,  and  to  surround 
themselves  with  such  luxuries  as  the  life  of  the  Islands 
permitted.  This  class  was  rapidly  gaining  education.  It 
acquired  -a  knowledge  of  the  Spanish  language,  and  easily 
assumed  that  graceful  courtesy  which  distinguishes  the 
Spaniard. 

The  only  misfortune,  as  regards  this  class,  was  that  it 
was  very  small.  It  could  embrace  but  a  few  families  in 
each  populous  town.  Some  of  these  had  Chinese  and 
Spanish  blood  in  their  veins,  but  other  notable  families 
were  pure  Filipinos. 

Attitude  of  the  Spanish  and  the  Friars  toward  Filipino 
Education.  —  The  great  mistake  committed  by  the  Span- 
iard was  that  he  rarely  welcomed  the  further  progress  of 
the  native  population,  and  the  center  of  this  opposition 
to  the  general  enlightenment  of  the  race  was  the  friars. 
Thus  those  who  had  been  the  early  protectors  and  edu- 
cators, little  by  little,  because  of  their  extreme  conserva- 
tism and  their  fear  of  loosening  the  ties  that  bound  the 
Filipino  to  the  church  and  to  Spain,  changed  into  oppo- 
nents of  his  progress  and  enemies  of  his  enlightenment; 


278  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

but  the  education  which  the  church  itself  had  given  to 
the  Filipino,  and  which  had  been  fostered  by  the  state 
and  especially  in  recent  times  by  the  Jesuits,  had  made 
the  Filipino  passionately  ambitious  for  more  enlighten- 
ment and  freedom. 

The  Rule  of  Governor  Torre.  —  Liberal  Reforms.  —  In 
1868,  Queen  Isabella  II.  of  Spain  was  deposed,  and  a  little 
later  a  revolutionary  government,  the  "  Republic  of  Spain," 
was  founded.  It  was  the  brief  triumph  of  that  reforming 
and  liberal  spirit  which  for  so  many  years  had  been  strug- 
gling to  free  Spain  from  the  burdens  of  aristocracy  and 
ecclesiasticism. 

The  natural  consequence  was  the  sending  of  a  liberal 
governor  to  the  Philippines  and  the  publication  of  liberal 
principles  and  reforms.  This  governor  was  General  de 
la  Torre.  He  was  a  brave  and  experienced  soldier  and 
a  thorough  democrat  at  heart.  He  dispensed  with  the 
formality  and  petty  pomp  with  which  the  governors  of 
Manila  had  surrounded  themselves;  he  dismissed  the 
escort  of  halberdiers,  with  their  mediaeval  uniforms  and 
weapons,  which  had  surrounded  the  governor-generals 
since  1581,  and  rode  out  in  civilian's  clothes  and  without 
ostentation.  His  efforts  were  directed  to  encouraging 
the  Filipinos  and  to  attaching  them  to  Spain.  In  the 
eyes  of  the  Spanish  law,  for  a  brief  period,  Spaniard  and 
colonists  had  become  equal,  and  La  Torre  tried  to  enforce 
this  principle  and  make  no  distinction  of  race  or  birth. 
While  Filipinos  were  encouraged  and  delighted,  it  is  im- 
possible to  describe  the  disgust  of  the  Spanish  population 
and  the  opposition  of  the  friars.  La  Torre  was  attacked 
and  opposed,  and  the  entire  course  of  his  governorship 
was  filled  with  trouble,  in  which,  naturally,  liberal  ideas 
gained  wider  and  wider  currency  among  the  Filipinos. 


PROGRESS  AXD  REVOLUTION.     1837-1897.  279 

Effect  of  the  Opposition  of  the  Friars.  —  The  friars, 
being  the  most  influential  opponents  of  the  Filipino, 
naturally  came  to  be  regarded  by  the  Filipinos  as  their 
greatest  enemies,  and  the  anti-friar  spirit  daily  spread 
and  intensified.  A  party  was  formed  which  demanded 
that  the  friars  vacate  the  parishes,  and  that  their  places 
be  filled  by  secular  priests,  in  accordance  with  the 
statutes  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  This  party  was  headed 
by  the  native  priests,  Dr.  Jose  Burgos,  and  Father  Gomez. 

A  Filipino  Movement  for  Reform.  —  After  the  fall  of 
the  republic  in  Spain  and  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy, 
the  administration  in  the  Philippines  attempted  to  extir- 
pate the  rising  tide  of  liberal  thought;  but  these  ideas  had 
taken  root  and  could  not  be  suppressed.  The  Filipino 
party,  if  so  we  may  call  it,  continued  to  plan  and  work 
for  reform.  It  numbered  not  only  those  of  Filipino  blood, 
but  many  of  Spanish  descent,  born  in  the  Philippines. 
There  is  no  certain  evidence  that  they  were  at  this  tune 
plotting  for  independence,  or  that  their  actions  were  trea- 
sonable; but  the  fear  and  hatred  felt  by  the  Spaniards 
resulted  frequently  in  the  exile  and  punishment  of  known 
advocates  of  reform. 

The  Cavite  Revolt.  —  In  1872  there  occurred  an  im- 
portant outbreak  known  as  the  Cavite  Revolt.  Two 
hundred  native  soldiers  at  the  Cavite  arsenal  rose, 
killed  their  officers,  and  shouted  " Death  to  Spain!"  They 
had  fellow-conspirators  among  the  troops  in  Manila,  but 
owing  to  mistakes  in  their  plans  these  failed  to  rise  with 
them  and  the  revolt  was  easily  suppressed. 

It  was  immediately  followed  by  the  arrest  of  a  large 
number  of  Filipinos  who  had  been  conspicuous  in  La 
Torre's  time  and  who  were  advocates  of  reform.  This 
number  included  the  three  priests,  Fathers  Burgos,  Za- 


280  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

mora,  and  Gomez,  besides  Don  Antonio  Regidor,  Don 
Joaquin  Pardo  de  Tavera,  Don  Pedro  Carillo,  and  others. 
A  council  of  war  condemned  to  death  forty-one  of  the 
participants  in  the  Cavite  riot,  and  these  were  shot  on 
the  morning  of  the  27th  of  January,  1872,  on  the  Field 
of  Bagumbayan.  On  the  6th  of  February  a  council  of 
war  condemned  to  death  eleven  more  soldiers  of  the 
regiment  of  artillery,  but  this  sentence  was  commuted  by 
the  governor  to  life  imprisonment.  On  the  15th  of  Feb- 
ruary the  same  council  of  war  sentenced  to  death  upon 
the  garrote,  the  priests  Burgos,  Zamora,  Gomez,  and  a 
countryman,  Saldua;  and  this  sentence  was  executed  on 
the  morning  of  the  17th. 

The  Spread  of  Secret  Organizations.  —  Masonry.  —  New 
ground  for  fear  was  now  found  hi  the  spread  of  secret 
organizations,  which  were  denounced  as  Free  Masonry. 
This  is  a  very  ancient  institution  which,  in  Protestant 
countries  like  England  and  America,  has  a  very  large 
membership,  and  in  these  countries  its  aims  are  wholly 
respectable.  It  has  never  in  any  way  been  connected 
with  sedition  or  other  unworthy  movements.  Its  services 
are,  in  fact,  largely  of  a  religious  character  and  it  possesses 
a  beautiful  and  elaborate  Christian  ritual;  but  hi  Latin 
countries  Masonry  has  been  charged  with  political  intrigue 
and  the  encouragement  of  infidelity,  and  this  has  resulted 
hi  clerical  opposition  to  the  order  wherever  found.  The 
first  Masonic  lodge  in  the  Philippines  was  established 
about  1861  and  was  composed  entirely  of  Spaniards.  It 
was  succeeded  by  others  with  Filipino  membership,  and 
in  one  way  or  another  seems  to  have  inspired  many  secret 
organizations,  which  were  formed  some  years  later. 

The  Asociacidn  Hispano-Filipina.  —  Large  numbers 
of  Filipinos  were  now  working,. if  not  for  independence, 


PROGRESS  AND  REVOLUTION.     1837-1897. 


281 


at  least  for  the  expulsion  of  the  friars;  and  while  this 
feeling  should  have  been  met  by  a  statesmanlike  and 
liberal  policy  of  reform,  the  government  constantly  re- 
sorted to  measures  of  repression,  which  little  by  little 
changed  the  movement  for  reformation  into  revolution. 

In  1888  the  "  Asociacion  Hispano-Filipina  "  was  formed 
by  a  number  of  the  younger  Filipino  patriots  and  students 
in  Spain.  Their  object  was  Philippine  reform.  The 
most  famous  of  this 
group,  who  gained  a 
supreme  place  in  the 
hearts  of  Filipinos  and 
in  the  history  of  the 
islands,  was  Dr.  Jose 
Rizal  y  Mercado.  He 
was  born  in  1861  at 
Calamba,  on  Laguna 
de  Bay,  and  even  as  a 
child  he  was  affected 
with  sadness  at  the 
memory  of  the  events 
of  1872  and  with  the 
backward  and  un- 
happy condition  of  his  countrymen.  He  was  educated 
by  the  Jesuits  at  the  Ateneo  Municipal  in  Manila,  and 
his  family  having  means  he  was  enabled  to  study  in  Spain, 
where  he  took  a  degree  in  medicine,  and  later  to  travel 
and  study  in  France,  England,  and  Germany. 

It  was  in  this  latter  country  that  he  produced  his  first 
novel,  Noli  Me  Tangere.  He  was  also  a  contributor 
to  the  Filipino  paper  published  in  Spain,  "  La  Solidar- 
idad."  It  was  to  bring  the  conditions  and  needs  of 
his  country  to  public  notice,  that  he  wrote  this  novel 


Dr.  Rizal. 


282  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

dealing  with  Tagalog  life  as  represented  at  his  old  home 
on  Laguna  de  Bay  and  in  the  city  of  Manila.  Later  he 
published  a  sequel,  El  Filibusterismo,  in  which  even  more 
courageously  and  significantly  are  set  forth  his  ideas  for 
reform. 

His  work  made  him  many  enemies,  and  on  his  return 
to  Manila  he  found  himself  in  danger  and  was  obliged  to 
leave.  He  returned  again  in  1892,  founded  "  La  Liga 
Filipina,"  and  was  immediately  arrested  and  sentenced 
to  deportation  to  Dapitan,  Mindanao.  Here  he  remained 
quietly  in  exile  for  some  years. 

The  Katipunan. — Meanwhile  the  ideas  which  had  been 
agitated  by  the  wealthy  and  educated  Filipinos  had 
worked  their  way  down  to  the  poor  and  humble  classes. 
They  were  now  shared  by  the  peasant  and  the  fisherman. 
Especially  in  those  provinces,  where  the  religious  orders 
owned  estates  and  took  as  rental  a  portion  of  the  ten- 
ants' crop,  there  was  growing  hatred  and  hostility  to  the 
friars.  The  "Liga  Filipina"  had  been  composed  of  cul- 
tivated and  moderate  men,  who  while  pressing  for  reform 
were  not  inclined  to  radical  extremes,  nor  to  obtain  their 
ends  by  violent  means. 

But  there  now  grew  up  and  gradually  spread,  until  it 
had  its  branches  and  members  in  all  the  provinces  sur- 
rounding Manila,  a  secret  association  composed  largely  of 
the  uneducated  classes,  whose  object  was  independence  of 
Spain,  and  whose  members,  having  little  to  lose,  were 
willing  to  risk  all.  This  was  the  society  which  has  since 
become  famous  under  the  name  of  "Katipunan."  This 
secret  association  was  organized  in  Manila  about  1892. 
Its  president  and  founder  was  Andres  Bonifacio.  Its 
objects  were  frankly  to  expel  the  friars,  and,  if  possible,  to 
destroy  the  Spanish  government. 


PROGRESS  AND  REVOLUTION.     1837-1897.  283 

Rebellion  of  1896.  —  A  general  attack  and  slaughter  of 
the  Spaniards  was  planned  for  the  end  of  the  year  1896. 
The  plot  was  discovered  by  the  priest  of  Binondo,  Padre 
Gil,  who  learned  of  the  movement  through  a  sister  of  one 
of  the  conspirators,  and  within  a  few  hours  the  government 
had  seized  several  hundred  persons  who  were  supposed  to 
be  implicated.  The  arrests  included  many  rich  and  prom- 
inent Filipinos,  and  at  the  end  of  some  weeks  the  Spanish 
prisons  contained  several  thousand  suspects.  Over  one 
thousand  of  these  were  almost  immediately  exiled  to  far- 
distant  Spanish  prisons  —  Fernando  Po,  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  and  the  fortress  of  Ceuta,  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

Meanwhile  the  Katipunan  was  organizing  its  forces  for 
struggle.  On  the  26th  of  August,  a  force  of  insurgents 
attacked  Caloocan,  and  four  days  later  a  pitched  battle 
was  fought  at  San  Juan  del  Monte.  In  this  last  fight  the 
insurgents  suffered  great  loss,  their  leader,  Valenzuela, 
was  captured  and,  with  three  companions,  shot  on  the 
Campo  de  Bagumbayan.  The  rising  continued,  however, 
and  the  provinces  of  Pampanga,  Bulacan,  and  Nueva 
Ecija  were  soon  in  full  rebellion.  The  center  of  revolt, 
however,  proved  to  be  Cavite.  This  province  was  almost 
immediately  cleared  of  Spaniards,  except  the  long  neck 
of  land  containing  the  town  of  Cavite  and  protected  by 
the  fleet.  Here  the  insurgents  received  some  organization 
under  a  young  man,  who  had  been  prominent  in  the 
Katipunan  —  Emilio  Aguinaldo. 

The  governor-general,  Blanco,  a  humane  man,  who  after- 
wards for  a  short  time  commanded  in  Cuba,  was  recalled, 
and  General  Polavieja  replaced  him.  The  Spanish  army 
at  the  beginning  of  the  revolt  had  consisted  of  but  fifteen 
hundred  troops,  but  so  serious  was  the  revolt  regarded 


284 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


that  Spain,  although  straining  every  energy  at  the  mo- 
ment to  end  the  rebellion  in  Cuba,  strengthened  the 
forces  in  the  Philippines,  until  Polavieja  had  an  army  of 
twenty-eight  thousand  Spaniards  assisted  by  several  loyal 

Filipino  regiments. 
With  this  army  a 
fierce  campaign  in 
C  a  v  i  t  e  province 
was  conducted, 
which  after  fifty- 
two  days'  hard 
fighting  ended  in 
the  defeat  of  the 
insurgents  and  the 
scattering  of  their 
forces. 

Death  of  Dr. 
Rizal.  —  For  the 
moment  it  looked 
as  though  the  re- 
bellion might  pass. 
Then  the  Spanish 
government  of  Po- 
lavieja disgraced 
itself  by  an  act  as 
wanton  and  cruel 
Aguinaido.  as  it  was  inhuman 

and  impolitic. 

Four  years  Dr.  Rizal  had  spent  in  exile  at  Dapitan.  He 
had  lived  quietly  and  under  surveillance,  and  it  was  im- 
possible that  he  could  have  had  any  share  in  this  rebellion 
of  1898.  Wearied,  however,  with  his  inactivity,  he  so- 
licited permission  to  go  as  an  army  doctor  to  the  dreadful 


PROGRESS  AND  REVOLUTION.    1837-1897.  285 

Spanish  hospitals  in  Cuba.  This  request  was  granted  in 
July,  and  Rizal  had  the  misfortune  to  arrive  in  Manila  at 
the  very  moment  of  discovery  of  the  rebellion  in  August. 
Governor  Blanco  hastened  to  send  him  to  Spain  with  a 
most  kindly  letter  to  the  minister  of  war,  in  which  he 
vouched  for  his  independence  of  the  events  which  were 
taking  place  in  Manila. 

His  enemies,  however,  could  not  see  him  escape.  Their 
persecution  followed  him  to  the  Peninsula,  and,  upon  his 
arrival  in  Spain,  Rizal  was  at  once  arrested  and  sent 
back  to  Manila  a  prisoner.  His  friend  Blanco  had  gone. 
Polavieja,  the  friend  and  tool  of  the  reactionary  party,  was 
busy  punishing  by  imprisonment,  banishment  or  death 
all  Filipinos  who  could  be  shown  to  have  the  slightest 
part  or  association  in  the  movement  for  reform.  And  by 
this  clique  Dr.  Rizal  was  sentenced  to  execution.  He 
was  shot  early  on  the  morning  of  December  30,  1896.1 
At  his  death  the  insurrection  flamed  out  afresh.  It  now 
spread  to  Pangasinan,  Zambales,  and  Ilokos. 

End  of  the  Revolt  by  Promises  of  Reform.  —  Pola- 
vieja returned  to  Spain,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gen. 
Primo  de  Rivera,  who  arrived  in  the  spring  of  1897.  The 
Spanish  troops  had  suffered  several  recent  reverses  and 
the  country  swarmed  with  insurgents.  The  policy  of 
Primo  de  Rivera  was  to  gain  by  diplomacy  where  the 
energy  of  his  predecessor  had  failed.  In  July,  1897,  an 
amnesty  proclamation  was  issued,  and  in  August  the 
governor-general  opened  negotiations  with  Aguinaldo, 
whose  headquarters  were  now  in  the  mountains  of  Angat 
in  Bulacan.  Primo  de  Rivera  urged  the  home  govern- 


1  An  account  of  Rizal's  trial  and  execution,  together  with  many 
papers  on  the  revolution,  is  printed  by  Retana.  See  Archivo,  Tomo  IV. 
Documentos  politicos  de  Adualidad. 


286  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

ment  to  make  some  reforms,  which  would  greatly  lessen 
the  political  importance  of  the  friars.  He  was  vehe- 
mently opposed  by  the  latter,  but  it  was  probably  in  the 
hope  of  some  reforms  that  Aguinaldo  and  his  fellow- 
insurgents  agreed,  for  the  payment  of  600,000  pesos,  to 
surrender  their  arms,  dismiss  the  insurgent  forces,  and 
themselves  retire  from  the  Islands.  This  agreement  was 
made,  and  on  December  27,  1897,  Aguinaldo  left  the  port 
of  Sual  for  Hongkong. 

The  Spanish  Misrule  Ended.  —  Conditions  in  the  prov- 
inces still  continued  very  unsatisfactory,  and  in  its  very 
last  hours  the  Spanish  government  lost  the  remnant  of 
its  prestige  with  the  people  by  a  massacre  in  Calle  Camba, 
Binondo,  of  a  company  of  Bisayan  sailors.  Ten  days 
after  this  occurrence  a  revolt  blazed  out  on  the  island  of 
Cebu.  Had  events  taken  their  course,  what  would  have 
been  the  final  conclusion  of  the  struggle  between  Span- 
iards and  Filipinos  it  is  impossible  to  say.  In  the  month 
of  April  war  was  declared  between  Spain  and  the  United 
States,  on  the  first  day  of  May  an  American  fleet  reached 
Manila  harbor,  and  in  the  naval  fight  off  Cavite,  Spanish 
dominion,  which  had  lasted  with  only  one  brief  inter- 
ruption for  333  years,  was  ended. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
AMERICA  AND  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Beginning  of  a  New  Era.  —  With  the  passing  of  the 
Spanish  sovereignty  to  the  Americans,  a  new  era  began 
in  the  Philippines.  Already  the  old  Spanish  rule  seems 
so  far  removed  that  we  can  begin  to  think  of  it  without 
feeling  and  study  it  without  prejudice. 

Development  of  the  United  States  of  America.  —  The 
American  nation  is  the  type  of  the  New  World.  Begin- 
ning in  a  group  of  colonies,  planted  half  a  century  later 
than  the  settlement  of  the  Philippines,  it  has  had  a  de- 
velopment unparalleled  in  the  history  of  states.  Although 
peopled  by  emigrants  from  Europe,  who  rigidly  preserved 
both  their  purity  of  race  and  pride  of  ancestry,  the  Amer- 
ican colonists,  at  the  end  of  a  century,  were  far  separated 
in  spirit  and  institutions  from  the  Old  World. 

Struggle  with  the  wilderness  and  with  the  savage  pro- 
duced among  them  a  society  more  democratic  and  more 
independent  than  Europe  had  ever  known;  while  their 
profound  religious  convictions  saved  the  colonists  from 
barbarism  and  intellectual  decline.  It  can  truthfully  be 
said,  that  in  1775,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  American. Rev- 
olution, the  colonists  had  abler  men  and  greater  political 
ability  than  the  mother-country  of  England.  It  was 
these  men  who,  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  framed 
the  American  Constitution,  the  greatest  achievement  in 
the  history  of  public  law.  This  nation,  endowed  at  its 
commencement  with  so  precious  an  inheritance  of  politi- 
cal genius,  felt  its  civil  superiority  to  the  illiberal  or  in- 
effective governments  of  Europe,  and  this  feeling  has 

287 


MINDANAO,  VISAYAS, 

AND 

PAKAGUA 


120          Longitude 


288 


290  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

produced  in  Americans  a  supreme  and  traditional  con- 
fidence in  their  own  forms  of  government  and  democratic 
standards  of  life.  Certainly  their  history  contains  much 
to  justify  the  choice  of  their  institutions. 

A  hundred  and  twenty-five  years  ago,  these  colonies 
were  a  small  nation  of  2,500,000  people,  occupying  no 
more  than  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  continent.  Great 
mountain  chains  divided  them  from  the  interior,  which 
was  overrun  by  the  fiercest  and  most  warlike  type  of 
man  that  the  races  have  produced  —  the  American  In- 
dian. With  an  energy  which  has  shown  no  diminishing 
from  generation  to  generation,  the  American  broke  through 
these  mountain  chains,  subdued  the  wilderness,  conquered 
the  Indian  tribes,  and  in  the  space  of  three  generations 
was  master  of  the  continent  of  North  America. 

Even  while  engaged  in  the  War  for  Independence,  the 
American  frontiersman  crossed  the  Appalachians  and  se- 
cured Kentucky  and  the  Northwest  Territory,  and  with 
them  the  richest  and  most  productive  regions  of  the 
Temperate  Zone,  —  the  Mississippi  Valley.  In  1803,  the 
great  empire  of  Louisiana,  falling  from  the  hand  of  France, 
was  added  to  the  American  nation.  In  1818,  Florida  was 
ceded  by  Spain,  and  in  1848,  as  a  result  of  war  with 
Mexico,  came  the  Greater  West  and  the  Pacific  seaboard. 
This  vast  dominion,  nearly  three  thousand  miles  in  width 
from  east  to  west,  has  been  peopled  by  natural  increase 
and  by  immigration  from  Europe,  until,  at  the  end  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  American  nation  numbered  sev- 
enty-six million  souls. 

This  development  has  taken  place  without  fundamental 
change  in  the  constitution  or  form  of  government,  without 
loss  of  individual  liberty,  and  with  ever  increasing  na- 
tional prosperity.  Moreover,  the  States  have  survived  the 


AMERICA   AND   THE  PHILIPPINES.  291 

Civil  War,  the  most  bloody  and  persistently  fought  war 
of  all  modern  centuries  —  a  war  in  which  a  million  sol- 
diers fell,  and  to  sustain  which  three  and  a  half  billion 
dollars  in  gold  were  expended  out  of  the  national  treasury. 
This  war  accomplished  the  abolition  of  negro  slavery,  the 
greatest  economic  revolution  ever  effected  by  a  single  blow. 

Such  in  brief  is  the  history  of  the  American  nation,  so 
gifted  with  political  intelligence,  so  driven  by  sleepless 
energy,  so  proud  of  its  achievements,  and  inwardly  so 
contemptuous  of  the  more  polished  but  less  liberal  life  of 
the  Old  World.  Europe  has  never  understood  this  nation, 
and  not  until  a  few  years  ago  did  Europeans  dream  of  its 
progress  and  its  power. 

Relation  of  the  United  States  to  South  American  Repub- 
lics. — Toward  the  republics  of  Spanish  America  the 
United  States  has  always  stood  in  a  peculiar  relation. 
These  countries  achieved  their  independence  of  Spain 
under  the  inspiration  of  the  success  of  the  United  States. 
Their  governments  were  framed  in  imitation  of  the  Amer- 
ican, and  in  spite  of  the  turbulence  and  disorder  of  their 
political  life,  the  United  States  has  always  felt  and  mani- 
fested a  strong  sympathy  for  these  states  as  fellow-repub- 
lics. She  has  moreover  pledged  herself  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  their  integrity  against  the  attacks  of  European 
powers.  This  position  of  the  United  States  in  threaten- 
ing with  resistance  the  attempt  of  any  European  power 
to  seize  American  territory  is  known  as  the  Monroe  Doc- 
trine, because  it  was  first  declared  by  President  Monroe 
in  1823. 

Sympathy  of  American  People  for  the  Oppressed  Cubans. 
—  The  fact  that  the  American  nation  attained  its  own 
independence  by  revolution  has  made  the  American  people 
give  ready  sympathy  to  the  cause  of  the  revolutionist. 


292  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

The  people  of  Cuba,  who  made  repeated  ineffective  strug- 
gles against  Spanish  sovereignty,  always  had  the  good 
wishes  of  the  American  people.  By  international  law, 
however,  one  nation  may  not  recognize  or  assist  revolu- 
tionists against  a  friendly  power  until  their  independence 
is  practically  effected. 

Thus,  when  rebellion  broke  out  afresh  in  Cuba  in  1894, 
the  United  States  government  actively  suppressed  the 
lending  of  assistance  to  the  Cubans,  as  was  its  duty,  al- 
though the  American  people  themselves  heartily  wished 
Cuba  free.  The  war  in  Cuba  dragged  along  for  years  and 
became  more  and  more  merciless.  The  passions  of  Cu- 
bans and  Spaniards  were  so  inflamed  that  quarter  was 
seldom  given,  and  prisoners  were  not  spared.  Spain 
poured  her  troops  into  the  island  until  there  were  120,000 
on  Cuban  soil,  but  the  rebellion  continued. 

The  Spanish  have  always  been  merciless  in  dealing 
with  revolutionists.  Americans,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
always  conceded  the  moral  right  of  a  people  to  resist 
oppressive  government,  and  in  the  entire  history  of  the 
United  States  there  has  scarcely  been  a  single  punish- 
ment for  political  crime.  Although  probably  the  fiercest 
war  in  history  was  the  American  Civil  War  from  1861  to 
1865,  there  was  not  a  single  execution  for  treason.  Thus 
the  stories  of  the  constant  executions  of  political  pris- 
oners, on  an  island  in  sight  of  its  own  shores,  greatly 
exasperated  America,  as  did  the  policy  of  Governor-gen- 
eral Weyler,  which  was  excessive  in  its  severity. 

War  with  Spain.  —  Destruction  of  the  "Maine."  —  As 
the  contest  proceeded  without  sign  of  termination,  the 
patience  of  the  American  people  grew  less.  Then,  Feb- 
ruary 15,  1898,  occurred  one  of  the  most  deplorable  events 
of  recent  times.  The  American  battleship  "Maine,"  lying 


AMERICA   AND   THE  PHILIPPINES.  293 

in  the  harbor  of  Havana,  was,  in  the  night,  blown  to  de- 
struction by  mine  or  torpedo,  killing  266  American  officers 
and  sailors.  It  is  impossible  to  believe  that  so  dastardly 
an  act  was  done  with  the  knowledge  of  the  higher  Spanish 
officials;  but  the  American  people  rightly  demanded  that 
a  government  such  as  Spain  maintained  in  Cuba,  unable 
to  prevent  such  an  outrage  upon  the  vessel  of  a  friendly 
power,  and  that  could  neither  suppress  its  rebellion  nor 
wage  war  humanely,  should  cease. 

Declaration  of  War.  —  On  April  20th  the  American 
Congress  demanded  that  Spain  withdraw  from  the  island 
and  recognize  the  independence  of  Cuba.  This  was  prac- 
tically a  declaration  of  war.  Spain  indignantly  refused, 
and  resolved  upon  resistance.  Unfortunately,  the  igno- 
rant European  press  claimed  for  Spain  military  and  naval 
superiority. 

The  war  was  brief,  and  was  an  overwhelming  disaster 
to  Spain.  Every  vessel  of  her  proud  navy  that  came 
under  the  fire  of  American  guns  was  destroyed. 

For  a  few  months  battle  raged  along  the  coasts  of 
Cuba,  and  then  Spain  sued  for  peace. 

Dewey's  Yictory  in  Manila  Bay.  —  But  meanwhile 
the  war,  begun  without  the  slightest  reference  to  the 
Philippine  Islands,  had  brought  about  surprising  conse- 
quences here. 

At  the  opening  of  the  war,  both  Spain  and  the  United 
States  had  squadrons  in  Asiatic  waters.  The  Spanish 
fleet  lay  at  Cavite,  the  American  ships  gathered  at  Hong- 
kong. Immediately  on  the  declaration  of  war,  the  Amer- 
ican naval  commander,  Dewey,  was  ordered  to  destroy 
the  Spanish  fleet,  which  was  feared  on  the  Pacific  coast  of 
America.  Dewey  entered  the  Bay  of  Manila  in  darkness 
on  the  morning  of  May  1st,  and  made  direct  for  the 


294  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Spanish  vessels  at  Cavite.  His  fleet  was  the  more  power- 
ful and  immeasurably  the  more  efficient.  In  a  few  hours 
the  Spanish  navy  was  utterly  destroyed  and  Manila  lay 
at  the  mercy  of  his  guns. 

A  Neiv  Insurrection  under  A^uinaldo.  —  At  this  sig- 
nal catastrophe  to  Spain,  the  smoldering  insurrection  in 
the  Islands  broke  out  afresh.  The  Spanish  troops  not  in 
Manila  were  driven  in  upon  their  posts,  and  placed  in  a 
position  of  siege.  The  friars,  so  hated  by  the  revolution- 
ists, were  captured  in  large  numbers  and  were  in  some 
cases  killed.  With  the  permission  and  assistance  of  the 
American  authorities,  Aguinaldo  returned  from  Singapore, 
and  landed  at  Cavite.  Here  he  immediately  headed  anew 
the  Philippine  insurrection. 

Capture  of  Manila.  —  Troops  were  dispatched  from 
San  Francisco  for  the  capture  of  Manila.  By  the  end  of 
July,  8,500  men  lay  in  the  transports  off  Cavite.  They 
were  landed  at  the  little  estuary  of  Paranaque,  and  ad- 
vanced northwards  upon  Fort  San  Antonio  and  the  de- 
fenses of  Malate.  The  Spaniards  behind  the  city's  defenses, 
although  outnumbering  the  Americans,  were  sick  and 
dispirited.  One  attempt  was  made  to  drive  back  the 
invading  army,  but  on  the  following  day  the  Americans 
swept  through  the  defenses  and  line  of  blockhouses,  and 
Manila  capitulated  (August  13,  1898). 

The  Filipinos  had  scarcely  participated  in  the  attack 
on  the  city,  and  they  were  excluded  from  occupying  it 
after  its  surrender.  This  act  was  justified,  because  the 
Filipino  forces  had  been  very  recently  raised,  the  sol- 
diers were  undisciplined,  and  had  they  entered  the  city, 
with  passions  inflamed  as  they  were,  it  was  feared  by  the 
Americans  that  their  officers  might  not  be  able  to  keep 
them  from  looting  and  crime. 


AMERICA   AND  THE  PHILIPPINES.  295 

Misunderstanding  between  Americans  and  Filipinos.  — 
Up  to  this  point,  the  relations  between  the  American  and 
Filipino  armies  had  been  friendly.  But  here  began  that 
misunderstanding  and  distrust  which  for  so  many  months 
were  to  alienate  these  two  peoples  and  imbitter  then- 
intercourse. 

Provisional  Government  of  the  Filipinos.  —  In  the 
interval  between  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  fleet  and 
the  capture  of  Manila,  the  Filipinos  in  Cavite  had  or- 
ganized a  provisional  government  and  proclaimed  the  in- 
dependence of  the  archipelago. 

American  Ideas  in  Regard  to  the  Philippines.  — The 
idea  of  returning  these  islands  to  the  Spanish  power  was 
exceedingly  repugnant  to  American  sentiment.  Spain's 
attitude  toward  revolutionists  was  well  understood  in 
America,  and  the  Filipinos  had  acted  as  America's  friends 
and  allies.  On  the  other  hand,  the  American  government 
was  unwilling  to  turn  over  to  the  newly  organized  Filipino 
republic  the  government  of  the  archipelago.  It  was  felt 
in  America,  and  with  reason,  that  this  Filipino  govern- 
ment was  not  truly  representative  of  all  the  people  in  the 
Philippines,  that  the  Filipino  -leaders  were  untried  men, 
and  that  the  people  themselves  had  not  had  political 
training  and  experience.  The  United  States,  having  over- 
thrown the  Spanish  government  here,  was  under  obliga- 
tion to  see  that  the  government  established  in  its  place 
would  represent  all  and  do  injustice  to  none.  The  Fili- 
pinos were  very  slightly  known  to  Americans,  but  their 
educated  class  was  believed  to  be  small  and  their  political 
ability  unproven.  Thus,  no  assurances  were  given  to  the 
Filipino  leaders  that  their  government  would  be  recognized, 
or  that  their  wishes  would  be  consulted  in  the  future  of 
the  Islands.  In  fact,  these  matters  could  be  settled  only 


296 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


by  action  of  the  American  Congress,  which  was  late  in 
assembling  and  slow  to  act. 

The  Terms  of  Peace.  —  Spain  and  America  were  now 
negotiating  terms  of  peace.  These  negotiations  were  con- 
ducted at  Paris,  and  dragged  on  during  many  critical 

weeks.  The  Fili- 
pinos were  natu- 
rally very  much 
concerned  over 
the  outcome. 

Finally,  the 
American  govern- 
ment demanded 
of  Spain  that  she 
cede  the  Islands 
to  the  Un  ited 
States  and  ac- 
cept the  sum  of 
$20,000,000  gold, 
for  public  works 
and  improvements 
which  she  had 
made. 

Suspicions      of 
the     Filipino 
Leaders.  —  These 
General  Luna.  terms  became 

known  in  Novem- 
ber, 1898.  They  served  to  awaken  the  worst  suspicions 
of  the  Filipino  leaders.  Many  believed  that  they  were 
about  to  exchange  the  oppressive  domination  of  Spain 
for  the  selfish  and  equally  oppressive  domination  of  Amer- 
ica. There  is  reason  to  believe  that  some  leaders  coun- 


AMERICA   AND   THE  PHILIPPINES. 


297 


seled  patience,  and  during  the  succeeding  months  made  a 
constant  effort  to  maintain  the  peace,  but  the  radical  party 
among  the  Filipinos  was  led  by  a  man  of  real  gifts  and 
fiery  disposition,  Antonio  Luna.     He  had  received  an  edu- 
cation  in  Europe,  had  had  some  instruction  in  military 
affairs,    and  when 
in    September  the 
Filipino   govern- 
ment   was    trans- 
ferred  to  Malolos, 
Luna  became    the 
general  in  chief  of 
the  military  forces. 
He  was  also  editor 
of  the  most  radical 
Filipino      newspa- 
per, "La  Indepen- 
dencia." 

New  Filipino 
Government.  —  On 
January  4,  1899, 
President  McKin- 
ley  issued  a  spe- 
cial message  to 
General  Otis,  com- 
manding the  armies 
of  the  United 

States  in  the  Philippines,  declaring  that  American  sover- 
eignty must  be  recognized  without  conditions.  It  was 
thought  in  the  United  States  that  a  firm  declaration  of 
this  kind  would  be  accepted  by  the  Filipinos  and  that 
they  would  not  dare  to  make  resistance.  The  intentions 
of  the  American  president  and  nation,  as  subsequent 


Apolinario  Mabini. 


298  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

events  have  proven,  were  to  deal  with  the  Filipinos 
with  great  liberality;  but  the  president's  professions 
were  not  trusted  by  the  Filipinos,  and  the  result  of 
Mr.  McKinley's  message  was  to  move  them  at  once  to 
frame  an  independent  government  and  to  decide  on 
war. 

This  new  government  was  framed  at  Malolos,  Bulacan, 
by  a  congress  with  representatives  from  most  of  the 
provinces  of  central  Luzon.  The  "Malolos  Constitution" 
was  proclaimed  January  23,  1899,  and  Don  Emilio  Agui- 
naldo  was  elected  president.  The  cabinet,  or  ministry, 
included  Don  Apolinario  Mabini,  secretary  of  state  ;  Don 
Teodoro  Sandico,  secretary  of  interior  ;  General  Baldo- 
mero  Aguinaldo,  secretary  of  war;  General  Mariano  Trias, 
secretary  of  treasury  ;  Don  Engracio  Gonzaga,  secretary 
of  public  instruction  and  agriculture. 

War  with  the  Americans.  —  Battle  of  Manila.  —  The 
Filipino  forces  were  impatient  for  fighting,  and  attack 
on  the  American  lines  surrounding  Manila  began  on  the 
•night  of  February  4th.  It  is  certain  that  battle  had 
been  decided  upon  and  in  preparation  for  some  time,  and 
that  fighting  would  have  been  begun  in  any  case,  before 
the  arrival  of  reinforcements  from  America;  but  the  at- 
tack was  precipitated  a  little  early  by  the  killing  at  San 
Juan  Bridge  of  a  Filipino  officer  who  refused  to  halt  when 
challenged  by  an  American  sentry.  On  that  memorable 
and  dreadful  night,  the  battle  raged  with  great  fury  along 
the  entire  circle  of  defenses  surrounding  the  city,  from 
Tondo  on  the  north  to  Fort  San  Antonio  de  Abad,  south 
of  the  suburb  of  Malate.  Along  three  main  avenues  from 
the  north,  east,  ancf  south  the  Filipinos  attempted  to 
storm  and  enter  the  capital,  but  although  they  charged 
with  reckless  bravery,  and  for  hours  sustained  a  bloody 


AMERICA   AND   THE  PHILIPPINES.  299 

combat,   they   had   fatally   underestimated   the   fighting 
qualities  of  the  American  soldier. 

The  volunteer  regiments  of  the  American  army  came 
almost  entirely  from  the  western  United  States,  where 
young  men  are  naturally  trained  to  the  use  of  arms,  and 
are  imbued  by  inheritance 'with  the  powerful  and  aggres- 
sive qualities  of  the  American  frontier.  When  morning 
broke,  the  Filipino  line  of  attack  had,  at  every  point,  been 
shattered  and  thrown  back,  and  the  Americans  had 
advanced  their  positions  on  the  north  to  Caloocan,  on 
the  east  to  the  Water  Works  and  the  Mariquina  Valley, 
and  on  the  south  to  Pasay. 

Declaration  of  War.  —  Unfortunately,  during  the  night 
attack  and  before  the  disaster  to  Filipino  arms  was  ap- 
parent, Aguinaldo  had  launched  against  the  United  States 
a  declaration  of  war.  This  declaration  prevented  the 
Americans  from  trusting  the  overtures  of  certain  Filipinos 
made  after  this  battle,  and  peace  was  not  achieved. 

The  Malolos  Campaign.  —  On  March  25th  began  the 
American  advance  upon  the  Filipino  capital  of  Malolos. 
This  Malolos  campaign,  as  it  is  usually  called,  occupied 
six  days,  and  ended  in  the  driving  of  the  Filipino  army 
and  government  from  their  capital. 

The  Filipino  army  was  pursued  in  its  retreat  as  far  as 
Kalumpit,  where  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande 
de  Pampanga  the  American  line  rested  during  the  height 
of  the  rainy  season.  During  this  interval  the  volunteer 
regiments,  whose  terms  of  service  had  long  expired,  were 
returned  to  the  States,  and  their  places  taken  by  regi- 
ments of  the  regular  army. 

Some  hard  fighting  had  taken  place  during  this  cam- 
paign, and  two  extremely  worthy  American  officers  were 
killed,  Colonels  Egbert  and  Stotsenberg. 


300  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  American  Army.  —  The  American  army  at  that 
time,  besides  the  artillery,  consisted  of  twenty-five  regi- 
ments of  infantry  and  ten  of  cavalry.  Congress  now 
authorized  the  organization  of  twenty-four  new  regiments 
of  infantry,  to  be  known  as  the  26th  to  the  49th  Regi- 
ments of  U.  S.  Volunteers,  and1  one  volunteer  regiment  of 
cavalry,  the  llth,  for  a  service  of  two  years.  These 
regiments  were  largely  officered  by  men  from  civil  life, 
familiar  with  a  great  variety  of  callings  and  professions, 
—  men  for  the  most  part  of  fine  character,  whose  services 
in  the  months  that  followed  were  very  great  not  only  in 
the  field,  but  in  gaining  the  friendship  of  the  Filipino 
people  and  in  representing  the  character  and  intentions 
of  the  American  government. 

Anti-  War  Agitators  in  America.  —  Through  the  sum- 
mer of  1899  the  war  was  not  pressed  by  the  American 
general,  nor  were  the  negotiations  with  the  Filipino  leaders 
conducted  with  success.  The  Filipinos  were  by  no  means 
dismayed.  In  spite  of  their  reverses,  they  believed  the  con- 
quest of  the  Islands  impossible  to  foreign  troops.  Further- 
more, the  war  had  met  with  tremendous  opposition  in  Amer- 
ica. Many  Americans  believed  that  the  war  was  against 
the  fundamental  rights  of  the  Filipino  people.  They 
attacked  the  administration  with  unspeakable  bitterness. 
They  openly  expressed  sympathy  for  the  Filipino  revolu- 
tionary cause,  and  for  the  space  of  two  years  their  encour- 
agement was  an  important  factor  in  sustaining  the  rebellion. 

Spread  of  the  Insurrection.  —  In  these  same  summer 
months  the  revolutionary  leaders  spread  their  cause  among 
the  surrounding  provinces  and  islands.  The  spirit  of  re- 
sistance was  prominent  at  first  only  among  the  Tagalogs, 
but  gradually  nearly  all  the  Christianized  population  was 
united  in  resistance  to  the  American  occupation. 


AMERICA   AND   THE  PHILIPPINES.  301 

Occupation  of  Negros.  —  The  Americans  had  mean- 
while occupied  Iloilo  and  the  Bisayas,  and  shortly  after- 
wards the  presidios  in  Mindanao  surrendered  by  the 
Spaniards.  In  Negros,  also,  exceptional  circumstances  had 
taken  place.  The  people  in  this  island  invited  American 
sovereignty;  and  Gen.  James  Smith,  sent  to  the  island  in 
March  as  governor,  assisted  the  people  hi  forming  a  liberal 
government,  through  which  insurrection  and  disorder  in 
that  island  were  largely  avoided. 

Death  of  General  Luna.  —  With  the  cessation  of 
heavy  rains,  the  fighting  was  begun  again  in  northern 
Luzon.  The  Filipino  army  had  its  headquarters  in  Tarlak, 
and  its  lines  occupied  the  towns  of  the  provinces  of  Pangas- 
inan  and  Nueva  Ecija,  stretching  in  a  long  line  of  posts 
from  the  Zambales  Mountains  almost  to  the  upper  waters 
of  the  Rio  Pampanga.  It  was  still  well  armed,  provis- 
ioned, and  resolute;  but  the  brilliant,  though  wayward, 
organizer  of  this  army  was  dead.  The  Nationalist  junta, 
which  had  directed  the  Philippine  government  and  army, 
had  not  been  able  to  reconcile  its  differences.  It  is  re- 
ported that  Luna  aspired  to  a  dictatorship.  He  was  killed 
by  soldiers  of  Aguinaldo  at  Cabanatuan. 

The  Campaign  in  Northern  Luzon.  —  The  American 
generals  now  determined  upon  a  strategic  campaign. 
General  MacArthur  was  to  command  an  advance  up  the 
railroad  from  Kalumpit  upon  Tarlak;  General  Lawton, 
with  a  flying  column  of  swift  infantry  and  cavalry,  was 
to  make  a  flanking  movement  eastward  through  Nueva 
Ecija  and  hem  the  Filipino  forces  in  upon  the  east.  Mean- 
while, General  Wheaton  was  to  convey  a  force  by  trans- 
port to  the  Gulf  of  Lingayen,  to  throw  a  cordon  across 
the  Ilokano  coast  that  should  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the 
Filipino  army  northward.  As  a  strategic  movement,  this 


AMERICAN  CAMPAIGNS 

IN 
NORTHERN  LUZON 


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120        Longitude         East          from         Greenwich         122 

302 


AMERICA   AND   THE  PHILIPPINES.  303 

campaign  was  only  partially  successful.  MacArthur  swept 
northward,  crushing  the  Filipino  line  on  his  front,  his 
advance  being  led  by  the  active  regiment  of  General 
J.  Franklin  Bell.  Lawton's  column  scoured  the  country 
eastward,  marching  with  great  rapidity  and  tremendous 
exertions.  Swollen  rivers  were  crossed  with  great  loss  of 
life,  and  the  column,  cutting  loose  from  its  supplies,  was 
frequently  in  need  of  food.  It  was  in  this  column  that 
the  Filipino  first  saw  with  amazement  the  great  American 
cavalry  horse,  so  large  beside  the  small  pony  of  the  Phil- 
ippines. Lawton's  descent  was  so  swift  that  the  Philip- 
pine government  and  staff  narrowly  escaped  capture. 

On  the  night  of  November  llth,  the  Filipino  generals 
held  their  last  council  of  war  at  Bayambang  on  the  Rio 
Agno,  and  resolved  upon  dispersal.  Meanwhile,  Wheaton 
had  landed  at  San  Fabian,  upon  the  southern  Ilokano 
coast,  but  his  force  was  insufficient  to  establish  an  effect- 
ive cordon,  and  on  the  night  of  November  loth  Agui- 
naldo,  with  a  small  party  of  ministers  and  officers,  closely 
pursued  by  the  cavalry  of  Lawton  under  the  command 
of  General  Young,  slipped  past,  through  the  mountains 
of  Pozorubio  and  Rosario,  and  escaped  up  the  Ilokano 
coast. 

Then  began  one  of  the  most  exciting  pursuits  in  re- 
cent wars.  The  chase  never  slackened,  except  in  those 
repeated  instances  when  for  the  moment  the  trail  of 
the  Filipino  general  was  lost.  From  Kandon,  Aguinaldo 
turned  eastward  through  the  comandancias  of  Lepanto 
and  Bontok,  into  the  wild  Igorot  country  of  the  Cor- 
dillera Central.  The  trail  into  Lepanto  leads  over  the 
lofty  mountains  through  the  precipitous  Tila  Pass.  Near 
the  summit,  in  what  was  regarded  as  an  impregnable 
position,  Gregorio  del  Pilar,  little  more  than  a  boy,  but  a 


304 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


brigadier-general,  with  a  small  force  of  soldiers,  the  rem- 
nant of  his  command,  attempted  to  cover  the  retreat  of 
his  president.  But  a  battalion  of  the  33d  Infantry,  under 
Major  March,  carried  the  pass,  with  the  total  destruction 
of  Pilar's  command,  he  himself  falling  amid  the  slain. 

Capture  of 
A  Q  uina.ldo-  — 
Major  March  then 
pursued  Aguinaldo 
into  Bontok  and 
thence  southward 
into  the  wild  and 
mountainous  terri- 
tory of  Quiangan. 
On  Christmas 
night,  1899,  the 
American  soldiers 
camped  on  the 
crest  of  the  Cordil- 
lera, within  a  few 
miles  of  the  Igo- 
rot  village  where 
the  Filipino  force 
was  sleeping.  Both 
parties  were  broken 
down  and  in  dire 
distress  through 
the  fierceness  of 

the  fight  and  pursuit,  but  for  several  weeks  longer  Agui- 
naldo's  party  was  able  to  remain  in  these  mountains  and 
elude  its  pursuers.  A  month  later,  his  trail  was  finally 
lost  in  the  valley  of  the  Cagayan.  He  and  his  small  party 
finally  passed  over  the  exceedingly  difficult  trail  through  the 


General  Pilar. 


AMERICA   AND   THE  PHILIPPINES.  305 

Sierra  Madre  Mountains,  to  the  little  Tagdlog  town  of 
Palanan  near  the  Pacific  coast.  Here,  almost  entirely  cut 
off  from  active  participation  in  the  insurrection,  Aguinaldo 
remained  until  March  of  1901,  when  he  was  captured  by 
the  party  of  General  Funston. 

For  some  weeks  following  the  disintegration  of  the 
Filipino  army,  the  country  appeared  to  be  pacified  and 
the  insurrection  over.  The  new  regiments  arriving  from 
the  United  States,  an  expedition  was  formed  under  Gen- 
eral Schwan,  which  in  December  and  January  marched 
southward  through  Cavite  and  Laguna  provinces  and  oc- 
cupied Batangas,  Tayabas,  and  the  Camarines.  Other 
regiments  were  sent  to  the  Bisayas  and  to  northern  Luzon, 
until  every  portion  of  the  archipelago,  except  the  islands 
of  Mindoro  and  Palawan,  contained  large  forces  of  Amer- 
ican troops. 

Reorganization  of  the  Filipino  Army.  —  The  Filipinos 
had,  by  no  means,  however,  abandoned  the  contest,  and 
this  period  of  quiet  was  simply  a  calm  while  the  insur- 
gent forces  were  perfecting  their  organization  and  prepar- 
ing for  a  renewal  of  the  conflict  under  a  different  form. 
It  being  found  impossible  for  a  Filipino  army  to  keep  the 
field,  there  was  effected  a  secret  organization  for  the 
purpose  of  maintaining  irregular  warfare  through  every 
portion  of  the  archipelago.  The  Islands  were  partitioned 
into  a  great  number  of  districts  or  "zones."  At  the 
head  of  each  was  a  zone  commander,  usually  with  the 
rank  of  general.  The  operations  of  these  men  were,  to  a 
certain  extent,  guided  by  the  counsel  or  directions  of  the 
secret  revolutionary  juntas  in  Manila  or  Hongkong,  but, 
in  fact,  they  were  practically  absolute  and  independent, 
and  they  exercised  extraordinary  powers.  They  recruited 
their  own  forces  and  commissioned  subordinate  com- 


306  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

manders.  They  levied  "  contributions "  upon  towns,  own- 
ers of  haciendas,  and  individuals  of  every  class,  and  there 
was  a  secret  civil  or  municipal  organization  for  collecting 
these  revenues.  The  zone  commanders,  moreover,  ex- 
ercised the  terrible  power  of  execution  by  administrative 
order. 

Assassination  of  Filipinos.  —  Many  of  the  Filipino 
leaders  were  necessarily  not  well  instructed  in  those 
rules  for  the  conduct  of  warfare  which  civilized  peoples 
have  agreed  upon  as  being  humane  and  honorable.  Many 
of  them  tried,  especially  in  the  latter  months  of  the  war, 
when  understanding  was  more  widely  diffused,  to  make 
their  conduct  conform  to  international  usage;  but  the 
revolutionary  junta  had  committed  the  great  crime  of 
ordering  the  punishment  by  assassination  of  all  Filipinos 
who  failed  to  support  the  insurgent  cause.  No  possible 
justification,  in  the  light  of  modern  morality,  can  be  found 
for  such  a  step  as  this.  The  very  worst  passions  were 
let  loose  in  carrying  out  this  policy.  Scores  of  unfortu- 
nate men  were  assassinated,  many  of  them  as  the  results 
of  private  enmity.  Endless  blackmail  was  extorted  and 
communities  were  terrorized  from  one  end  of  the  archi- 
pelago to  the  other. 

Irregular  Warfare  of  the  Filipinos. — Through  the 
surrender  of  Spanish  forces,  the  capture  of  the  arsenals 
of  Cavite  and  Olongapo,  and  by  purchase  through  Hong- 
kong, the  revolutionary  government  possessed  between 
thirty  thousand  and  forty  thousand  rifles.  These  arms 
were  distributed  to  the  different  military  zones,  and  the 
secret  organization  which  existed  in  each  municipality 
received  its  proportion.  These  guns  were  secreted  by  the 
different  members  of  the  command,  except  when  occasion 
arose  for  effecting  a  surprise  or  making  an  attack.  There 


AMERICA   AXD   THE  PHILIPPINES.  307 

were  no  general  engagements,  but  in  some  towns  there 
was  almost  nightly  shooting.  Pickets  and  small  detach- 
ments were  cut  off,  and  roads  became  so  unsafe  through- 
out most  of  the  archipelago  that  there  was  no  travel  by 
Americans  except  under  heavy  escort.  For  a  long  time, 
also,  the  orders  of  the  commanding  general  were  so  lenient 
that  it  was  impossible  properly  to  punish  this  conduct  when 
it  was  discovered. 

Death  of  General  Lawton.  —  The  American  army,  in  its/ 
attempt  to  garrison  every  important  town  in  the  Islands, 
was  cut  up  into  as  many  as  550  small  detachments  of  post 
garrisons.    Thus,   while  there  were  finally  over  seventy! 
thousand  American  soldiers  in  the  Islands,  it  was  rare  for 
as  many  as  five  hundred  to  take  the  field,  and  most  of  the 
engagements  of  the  year  1900  were  by  small  detachments 
of  fifty  to  one  hundred  men. 

It  was  in  one  of  these  small  expeditions  that  the  Ameri- 
can army  suffered  the  greatest  single  loss  of  the  war.  A 
few  miles  east  of  Manila  is  the  beautiful  Mariquina  Valley, 
from  which  is  derived  the  city's  supply  of  water,  and  the 
headwaters  of  this  pretty  stream  lie  in  the  wild  and  pictur- 
esque fastness  of  San  Mateo  and  Montalban.  Although 
scarce  a  dozen  miles  from  the  capital  and  the  headquar- 
ters of  a  Filipino  brigade,  San  Mateo  was  not  permanently 
occupied  by  the  Americans  until  after  the  18th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1899,  when  a  force  under  General  Lawton  was  led 
around  through  the  hills  to  surprise  the  town. 

Early  in  the  morning  the  American  force  came  pouring 
down  over  the  hills  that  lie  across  the  river  from  the  vil- 
lage. They  were  met  by  a  brisk  fire  from  the  insurgent 
command  scattered  along  the  banks  of  the  river  and  in  a 
sugar  hacienda  close  to  the  stream.  Here  Lawton,  con- 
spicuous in  light  clothing  and  helmet,  accompanying,  as 


308  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

was  his  custom,  the  front  line  of  skirmishers,  was  struck 
by  a  bullet  and  instantly  killed. 

Filipino  Leaders  Sent  to  Guam.  —  In  November,  1900, 
:  after  the  reelection  in  the  United  States  of  President 
McKinley,  a  much  more  vigorous  policy  of  war  was 
inaugurated.  In  this  month  General  MacArthur,  com- 
manding the  division,  issued  a  notable  general  order, 
defining  and  explaining  the  laws  of  war  which  were 
being  violated,  and  threatening  punishment  by  impris- 
onment of  those  guilty  of  such  conduct.  Some  thousands 
of  Filipinos  under  this  order  were  arrested  and  impris- 
oned. Thirty-nine  leaders,  among  them  the  high-minded 
but  irreconcilable  Mabini,  were  in  December,  1900,  sent  to 
a  military  prison  on  the  island  of  Guam. 

Campaigning  was  much  more  vigorously  prosecuted  in 
air  military  districts.  By  this  time  all  the  American  offi- 
cers had  become  familiar  with  the  insurgent  leaders,  and 
these  were  now  obliged  to  leave  the  towns  and  establish 
cuartels  in  remote  barrios  and  in  the  mountains. 

These  measures,  pursued  through  the  winter  of  1900-01, 
broke  the  fighting  strength  of  the  revolutionists. 

The  Philippine  Civil  Commission.  —  Probably  the  most 
influential  factor  in  producing  peace  resulted  from  the 
presence  and  labors  of  the  Civil  Philippine  Commission. 
These  gentlemen,  Judge  William  H.  Taft,  Judge  Luke  E. 
Wright,  Judge  Henry  C.  Ide,  Professor  Dean  C.  Worcester, 
and  Professor  Bernard  Moses,  were  appointed  by  the  presi- 
dent in  the  spring  of  1900  to  legislate  for  the  Islands  and  to 
prepare  the  way  for  the  establishment  of  civil  government. 
President  McKinley's  letter  of  instructions  to  this  com- 
mission will  probably  be  ranked  as  one  of  the  ablest  and 
most  notable  public  papers  in  American  history. 

The  commission  reached  the  Islands  in  June  and  began 


AMERICA   AND    THE  PHILIPPINES. 


309 


their  legislative  work  on  September  1st.  This  body  of 
men,  remarkable  for  their  high  character,  was  able  at 
last  to  bring  about  an  understanding  with  the  Filipino 
leaders  and  to  assure  them  of  the  unselfish  and  honorable 
purposes  of  the  American  government.  Thus,  by  the  early 
winter  of  1900-01  many  Filipino  gentlemen  became  con- 
vinced that  the  best  interests  of  the  Islands  lay  in  accept- 
ing American  sovereignty,  and  that  they  could  honorably 
advocate  the  surrender 
of  the  insurgent  forces. 
These  men  represented 
the  highest  attainments 
and  most  influential  po- 
sitions in  the  Islands. 
In  December  they 
formed  an  association 
known  as  the  Federal 
Party,  for  the  purpose 
of  inducing  the  surren- 
der of  military  leaders, 
obedience  to  the  Amer- 
ican government,  and 
the  acceptance  of  peace.  Governor  Taft. 

End  of  the  Insurrec- 
tion. —  Under  these  influences,  the  insurrection,  in  the 
spring  of  1901,  went  rapidly  to  pieces.  Leader  after  leader 
surrendered  his  forces  and  arms,  and  took  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance and  quietly  returned  home.  By  the  end  of  June 
there  were  but  two  zone  commanders  who  had  not  sur- 
rendered, —  General  Malvar  in  Batangas,  and  General 
Lukban  in  Samar. 

The  First  Civil  Governor.  —  Peaceful  conditions  and  se- 
curity almost  immediately  followed  these  surrenders  and 


310  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

determined  the  president  to  establish  civil  government 
at  once.  On  July  4,  1901,  this  important  step  was  taken, 
Judge  Taft,  the  president  of  the  Philippine  Commission, 
taking  office  on  that  date  as  the  first  American  civil  gov- 
ernor of  the  Philippines.  On  September  1st,  the  Philip- 
pine Commission  was  increased  by  the  appointment  of 
three  Filipino  members,  —  the  Hon.  T.  H.  Pardo  de  Tavera, 
M.  D.,  the  Hon.  Benito  Legarda,  and  the  Hon.  Jose  Luzu- 
riaga  of  Negros. 

The  Philippine  Commission  has  achieved  a  remarkable 
amount  of  legislation  of  a  very  high  order.  From  Sep- 
tember, 1900,  to  the  end  of  December,  1902,  the  com- 
mission passed  no  less  than  571  acts  of  legislation.  Some 
of  these  were  of  very  great  importance  and  involved  long 
preparation  and  labor.  Few  administrative  bodies  have 
ever  worked  harder  and  with  greater  results  than  the 
Philippine  Commission  during  the  first  two  years  of  its 
activity.  The  frame  of  government  in  all  its  branches 
had  to  be  organized  and  set  in  motion,  the  civil  and  crim- 
inal law  liberalized,  revenue  provided,  and  public  instruc- 
tion remodeled  on  a  very  extensive  scale. 

The  New  Government.  —  The  government  is  a  very  lib- 
eral one,  and  one  which  gives  an  increasing  opportunity 
for  participation  to  the  Filipinos.  It  includes  what  is 
called  local  self-government.  There  are  in  the  Islands 
about  1,132  municipalities.  In  these  the  residents  prac- 
tically manage  their  own  affairs.  There  are  thirty-eight 
organized  provinces  in  the  archipelago,  in  which  the  ad- 
ministration rests  with  the  Provincial  Board  composed  of 
the  governor,  treasurer,  and  supervisor  or  engineer.  The 
governor  is  elected  for  the  term  of  two  years  by  the  coun- 
cilors of  all  the  towns  united  in  assembly.  The  treas- 
urer and  supervisor  are  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the 


AMERICA   AND   THE  PHILIPPINES. 


311 


Philippine  archipelago  under  the  rules  of  the  Civil  Ser- 
vice Board.  The  civil  service  is  a  subject  which  has 
commanded  the  special  consideration  of  the  Commission. 
It  gives  equal  opportunity  to  the  Filipino  and  to  the 
American  to  enter  the  public  service  and  to  gain  public 
promotion;  and  the  Filipino  is  by  law  even  given  the 
preference  where  possessed  of  the  requisite  ability. 


The  Palace,  Manila.    Headquarters  of  the  Government. 

The  Insular  Government. — For  the  purposes  of  admin- 
istration, the  insular,  or  central  government  of  the  Islands 
is  divided  into  four  branches,  called  departments,  each 
directed  by  a  secretary  who  is  also  a  member  of  the  Phil- 
ippine Commission.  These  departments  are,  interior,  Sec- 
retary Worcester;  finance  and  justice,  Secretary  Ide;  com- 
merce and  police,  Secretary  Wright;  and  public  instruc- 
tion, Secretary  Moses,  until  January  1,  1903,  and  since 


312  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

that  date  Secretary  Smith.  Under  each  of  these  depart- 
ments are  a  large  number  of  bureaus,  by  which  the  many 
important  activities  of  the  government  are  performed. 

We  have  only  to  examine  a  list  of  these  bureaus  to  see 
how  many-sided  is  the  work  which  the  government  is 
performing.  It  is  a  veritable  commonwealth,  complete  in 
all  the  branches  which  demand  the  attention  of  modern 
governments.  Thus,  under  the  Department  of  the  Inte- 
rior, there  is  the  Bureau  of  Public  Health,  with  its  ex- 
tremely important  duties  of  combating  epidemic  diseases 
and  improving  public  sanitation,  with  its  public  hospitals, 
sanitariums,  and  charities;  the  Bureau  of  Government 
Laboratories  for  making  bacteriological  and  chemical  in- 
vestigations; a  Bureau  of  Forestry;  a  Bureau  of  Mining; 
the  Philippine  Weather  Bureau;  a  Bureau  of  Agriculture; 
a  Bureau  of  Non-Christian  Tribes  for  conducting  the  gov- 
ernment work  in  ethnology  and  for  framing  legislation  for 
pagan  and  Mohammedan  tribes;  and  a  Bureau  of  Public 
Lands. 

Under  the  department  of  Commerce  and  Police  are 
the  Bureau  of  Posts;  Signal  Service;  the  Philippines 
Constabulary,  really  an  insular  army,  with  its  force  of 
some  sixty-five  hundred  officers  and  men;  Prisons;  the 
Coast  Guard  and  Transportation  Service,  with  a  fleet  of 
about  twenty  beautiful  little  steamers,  nearly  all  of  them 
newly  built  for  this  service  and  named  for  islands  of  the 
archipelago;  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  doing  the 
much-needed  work  of  charting  the  dangerous  coasts  and 
treacherous  waters  of  the  archipelago;  and  the  Bureau  of 
Engineering,  which  has  in  its  charge  great  public  works, 
many  of  which  are  already  under  way. 

Under  the  Department  of  Finance  and  Justice  are  the 
Insular  Treasurer;  the  Insular  Auditor;  the  Bureau  of 


AMERICA   AND   THE  PHILIPPINES.  313 

Customs  and  Immigration;  the  Bureau  of  Internal  Rev- 
enue; the  Insular  Cold  Storage  and  Ice  Plant;  and  the 
great  Bureau  of  Justice. 

Under  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction  there  is 
the  Bureau  of  Education  in  charge  of  the  system  of  public 
schools ;  a  Bureau  of  Printing  and  Engraving,  with  a  new 
and  fully  equipped  plant;  a  Bureau  of  Architecture;  a 
Bureau  of  Archives;  a  Bureau  of  Statistics;  and  the 
Philippine  Museum. 

Revenues  and  Expenditures. — The  maintenance  of 
these  numerous  activities  calls  for  an  expenditure  of  large 
sums  of  money,  but  the  insular  government  and  the  Filipino 
people  are  fortunate  in  having  had  their  finances  man- 
aged with  exceptional  ability.  The  revenues  of  the  Islands 
for  the  past  fiscal  year  have  amounted  to  about  $10,638,- 
000,  gold.  Public  expenditures,  including  the  purchase 
of  equipment  such  as  the  coast-guard  fleet  and  the  forward- 
ing of  great  public  works  such  as  the  improving  of  the 
harbor  of  Manila,  amounted  during  fiscal  year  of  1903  to 
about  $9,150,000,  gold.  The  government  has  at  all  times 
preserved  a  good  balance  in  its  treasury;  but  the  past 
year  has  seen  some  diminution  in  the  amount  of  revenues, 
owing  to  the  great  depreciation  of  silver  money,  the  fall- 
ing off  of  imports,  the  wide  prevalence  of  cholera,  and  the 
poverty  of  many  parts  of  the  country  as  a  result  of  war 
and  the  loss  of  livestock  through  pest.  To  assist  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Philippines,  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  in  February,  1903,  with  great  and  characteristic 
generosity  appropriated  the  sum  of  $3,000,000,  gold,  as  a 
free  gift  to  the  people  and  government  of  the  Philippines. 

The  Judicial  System. — Especially  fortunate,  also,  have 
been  the  labors  of  the  commission  in  establishing  a  judi- 
cial system  and  revising  the  Spanish  law.  The  legal 


314  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

ability  of  the  commission  is  unusually  high.  As  at  present 
constituted,  the  judicial  system  consists  of  a  Supreme 
Court  composed  of  seven  justices,  three  of  whom  at  the 
present  time  are  Filipinos.  Besides  trying  cases  over 
which  it  has  original  jurisdiction,  this  court  decides  cases 
of  appeal  from  the  Courts  of  First  Instance,  fifteen  in  num- 
ber, which  sit  in  different  parts  of  the  Islands.  Each  town, 
moreover,  has  its  justices  of  the  peace  for  the  trial  of 
small  cases  and  for  holding  preliminary  examinations  in. 
cases  of  crimes.  By  the  new  Code  of  Civil  Procedure, 
the  administration  of  justice  has  been  so  simplified  that 
there  are  probably  no  courts  in  the  world  where  justice 
can  be  more  quickly  secured  than  here. 

System,  of  Publio  Schools.  —  Probably  no  feature  of  tfie 
American  government  in  the  Islands  has  attracted  more 
attention  than  the  system  of  public  schools.  Popular 
education,  while  by  no  means  wholly  neglected  under  the 
Spanish  government,  -was  inadequate,  and  was  continu- 
ally opposed  by  the  clerical  and  conservative  Spanish 
forces,  who  feared  that  the  liberalizing  of  the  Filipino 
people  would  be  the  loosening  of  the  control  of  both 
Spanish  state  and  church.  On  the  contrary,  the  success 
of  the  American  government,  as  of  any  government  in 
which  the  people  participate,  depends  upon  the  intelli- 
gence and  education  of  the  people.  Thus,  the  American 
government  is  as  anxious  to  destroy  ignorance  and  pov- 
erty as  the  Spanish  government  and  the  Spanish  church 
were  desirous  of  preserving  these  deeply  unfortunate  con- 
ditions. 

Americans  believe  that  if  knowledge  is  generally  spread 
among  the  Filipino  people,  if  there  can  be  a  real  under- 
standing of  the  genius  and  purpose  of  our  American  insti- 
tutions, there  will  come  increasing  content  and  satisfac- 


AMERICA   AND   THE  PHILIPPINES.  315 

tion  to  dwell  under  American  law.  Thus,  education  was 
early  encouraged  by  the  American  army,  and  it  received 
the  first  attention  of  the  commission.  The  widespread 
system  of  public  schools  which  now  exists  in  these  islands 
was  organized  by  the  first  General  Superintendent  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction,  Dr.  Fred  W.  Atkinson,  and  by  Professor 
Bernard  Moses  of  the  Philippine  Commission. 

Instruction  in  the  English  Language-  —  The  basis 
of  this  public  instruction  is  the  English  language.  This 
was  early  decided  upon  in  view  of  the  great  number  of 
Filipino  dialects,  the  absence  of  a  common  native  language 
or  literature,  and  the  very  moderate  acquaintance  with 
Spanish  by  any  except  the  educated  class. 

It  is  fortunate  for  the  Filipino  people  that  English  has 
been  introduced  here  and  that  its  knowledge  is  rapidly 
spreading.  Knowledge  of  language  is  power,  and  the 
more  widely  spoken  the  tongue,  the  greater  the  possession 
of  the  individual  who  acquires  it.  Of  all  the  languages 
of  the  world,  English  is  to-day  the  most  widely  spoken 
and  is  most  rapidly  spreading.  Moreover,  English  is  pre- 
eminently the  language  of  the  Far  East.  From  Yoko- 
hama to  Australia,  and  from  Manila  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez,  English  is  the  common  medium  of  communication. 
It  is  the  language  alike  of  business  and  of  diplomacy. 
The  Filipino  people,  so  eager  to  participate  in  all  the  busy 
life  of  eastern  Asia,  so  ambitious  to  make  their  influence 
felt  and  their  counsels  regarded,  will  be  debarred  from 
all  this  unless  they  master  this  mighty  English  tongue. 

The  Filipino  Assembly.  —  Thus,  after  four  and  a  half 
years  of  American  occupation,  the  sovereignty  of  the 
United  States  has  been  established  in  the  archipelago,  and 
a  form  of  government,  unique  in  the  history  of  colonial 
administration,  inaugurated.  One  other  step  in  the  con- 


316  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

templation  of  Congress,  which  will  still  further  make  the 
government  a  government  of  the  Filipino  people,  remains 
to  be  taken.  This  is  the  formation  of  a  Filipino  assembly 
•  of  delegates  or  representatives,  chosen  by  popular  vote 
from  all  the  Christianized  provinces  of  the  archipelago. 
The  recent  census  of  the  Philippines  will  form  the  basis  for 
the  apportionment  of  this  representation.  This  assembly 
will  share  'the  legislative  power  on  all  matters  pertaining 
to  the  Christian  people  of  the  Philippines  and  those  parts 
of  the  Islands  inhabited  by  them.  When  this  step  shall 
have  been  taken,  the  government  of  the  Philippine  Islands 
will  be  like  the  typical  and  peculiarly  American  form  of 
government  known  as  territorial. 

Territorial  Form  of  Government  in  the  United  States.  — 
The  American  Union  is  composed  of  a  number  of  states 
or  commonwealths  which,  while  differing  vastly  in  wealth 
and  population,  are  on  absolutely  equal  footing  in  the 
Union.  The  inhabitants  of  these  states  form  politically 
the  American  sovereignty.  They  elect  the  president  and 
Congress,  and  through  their  state  legislatures  may  change 
or  amend  the  form  of  the  American  state  itself. 

Besides  these  states,  there  have  always  been  large  pos- 
sessions of  the  nation  called  territories.  These  territories 
are  extensive  countries,  too  sparsely  inhabited  or  too  un- 
developed politically  to  be  admitted,  in  the  judgment  of 
the  American  Congress,  to  statehood  in  the  Union.  Their 
inhabitants  do  not  have  the  right  to  vote  for  the  presi- 
dent; neither  have  they  representation  in  the  American 
Congress.  These  territories  are  governed  by  Congress, 
through  territorial  governments,  and  over  them  Congress 
has  full  sovereign  powers.  That  is,  as  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  has  decided  and  explained,  while 
Congress  when  legislating  for  the  states  in  the  Union  has 


AMERICA   AND   THE  PHILIPPINES,  317 

only  those  powers  of  legislation  which  have  been  specifi- 
cally granted  by  the  Constitution,  in  legislating  for  the 
territories  it  has  all  the  powers  which  the  Constitution 
has  not  specifically  denied.  The  only  limitations  on  Con- 
gress are  those  which,  under  the  American  system  of  public 
law,  guarantee  the  liberty  of  the  individual,  —  his  freedom 
of  religious  belief  and  worship;  his  right  to  just,  open, 
and  speedy  trial;  his  right  to  the  possession  of  his  prop- 
erty; and  other  precious  privileges,  the  result  of  centuries 
of  development  in  the  English-speaking  race,  which  make 
up  civil  liberty.  These  priceless  securities,  which  no 
power  of  the  government  can  take  away,  abridge,  or  in- 
fringe, are  as  much  the  possession  of  the  inhabitants  of 
a  territory  as  of  a  state.1 

The  government  of  these  territories  has  varied  greatly 
in  form  and  may  be  changed  at  any  time  by  Congress, 
but  it  usually  consists  of  a  governor  and  supreme  court, 
appointed  by  the  president  of  the  United  States,  and  a 
legislature  elected  by  the  people.  Since  1783  there  has 
always  been  territory  so  held  and  governed  by  the  United 
States,  and  if  we  may  judge  from  the  remarkable  history 
of  these  regions,  this  form  of  government  of  dependent 
possessions  is  the  most  successful  and  most  advantageous 
to  the  territory  itself  that  has  ever  been  devised. 

At  the  present  time,  the  territories  of  the  United  States 
are  Oklahoma,  the  Indian  Territory,  New  Mexico,  Ari- 


1  See  the  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  the  cases  of  American 
Insurance  Co.  v.  Canter  (1  Peters,  511),  decided  in  1828;  National 
Bank  v.  County  of  Yankton  (101  U.  S.  Reports,  129),  decided  in  1879; 
The  Mormon  Church  v.  United  States  (136  U.  S.  Reports,  1),  decided 
May,  1890.  On  the  domain  of  personal  liberty  possessed  by  the  in- 
habitants of  a  territory,  in  addition  to  above  cases,  see  also  the  cases 
of  Reynolds  v.  United  States  (98  U.  S.  Reports,  154),  1878;  and  Murphy 
y.  Ramsey  (114  U.  S.  Reports,  15),  1884. 


318  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

zona,  Alaska,  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  Porto  Rico,  the  Phil- 
ippines, and  Guam. 

The  territorial  form  of  government  has  frequently  been 
regarded  by  American  statesmen  as  a  temporary  condi- 
tion to  be  followed  at  a  comparatively  early  date  by 
statehood.  But  after  more  than  a  century  of  develop- 
ment, territorial  government,  as  shaped  by  Congress  and 
as  denned  by  the  Supreme  Court,  shows  itself  so  flexible 
and  advantageous  that  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should 
not  be  regarded  as  a  permanent  and  final  form.  Whether 
it  will  long  prevail  in  the  Philippines,  depends  very  largely 
upon  the  political  development  and  ultimate  desires  of 
the  Filipino  people  themselves.  For  the  present,  it  is  the 
only  suitable  form  of  government  and  the  only  form 
which  it  is  statesmanlike  to  contemplate. 

Filipino  Independence.  —  The  events  of  the  last  few 
years  seem  to  indicate  that  the  American  nation  will  not 
intrust  the  Philippines  with  independence  until  they  have 
immeasurably  gained  in  political  experience  and  social 
self-control.  The  question  is  too  great  to  be  discussed 
here,  but  this  much  may  be  said:  The  rapid  march  of 
international  politics  in  this  coming  century  will  not  be 
favorable  to  the  independence  of  the  small  and  imper- 
fectly developed  state.  Independence,  while  it  may  fas- 
cinate the  popular  leader,  may  not  be  most  advantageous 
for  this  people.  Independence,  under  present  tendencies 
of  international  trade,  means  economic  isolation.  Inde- 
pendence, in  the  present  age,  compels  preparedness  for 
war;  preparedness  for  war  necessitates  the  maintenance  of 
strong  armies,  the  building  of  great  navies,  and  the  great 
economic  burdens  required  to  sustain  these  armaments. 
Especially  would  this  be  true  of  an  archipelago  so  exposed 
to  attack,  so  surrounded  by  .ambitious  powers,  and  so 


AMERICA   AND   THE  PHILIPPINES.  319 

near  the  center  of  coming  struggle,  as  are  the  Philippines. 
Japan,  with  a  population  of  forty-six  million,  wonderful 
for  their  industry  and  economy,  and  passionately  devoted 
to  their  emperor,  is  independent,  but  at  great  cost.  The 
burden  of  her  splendid  army  and  her  modern  navy  weighs 
heavily  upon  her  people,  consumes  a  large  proportion  of 
their  earnings,  and  sometimes  seems  to  be  threatening  to 
strain  the  resources  of  the  nation  almost  to  the  point  of 
breaking. 

Advantages  of  American  Control.  —  Surely,  a  people  is 
economically  far  more  privileged  if,  like  the  Philippines 
under  the  American  government,  or  Australia  under  the 
British,  they  are  compelled  to  sustain  no  portion  of  the 
burden  of  exterior  defense.  The  navies  of  the  United 
States  to-day  protect  the  integrity  of  the  Philippine  archi- 
pelago. The  power  of  a  nation  so  strong  and  so  terrible, 
when  once  aroused,  that  no  country  on  the  globe  would 
think  for  a  minute  of  wantonly  molesting  its  territory, 
shields  the  Filipino  from  all  outside  interference  and  per- 
mits him  to  expend  all  his  energy  in  the  development  of 
those  abilities  to  which  his  temperament  and  endowment 
inspire  him. 

American  government  means  freedom  of  opportunity. 
There  is  no  honorable  pursuit,  calling,  or  walk  of  life 
under  heaven  in  which  the  Filipino  may  not  now  engage 
and  in  which  he  will  not  find  his  endeavors  encouraged 
and  his  success  met  with  generous  appreciation.  In  poli- 
tics, his  progress  may  be  slow,  because  progress  here  is 
not  the  development  of  the  individual  nor  of  the  few,  but 
of  the  whole.  But  in  the  no  less  noble  pursuits  of  science, 
literature,  and  art,  we  may  in  this  very  generation  see 
Filipinos  achieving  more  than  notable  success  and  dis- 
tinction, not  only  for  themselves  but  for  their  land. 


320  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Patriotic  Duty.  —  Patriotic  duty,  as  regards  the  Philip- 
pines, means  for  the  American  a  wholesome  belief  in  the 
uprightness  of  the  national  purposes;  a  loyal  appreciation 
of  the  men  who  have  here  worked  wisely  and  without 
selfishness,  and  have  borne  the  brunt  of  the  toil;  a  loyalty 
to  the  government  of  the  Philippines .  and  of  the  United 
States,  so  long  as  these  governments  live  honestly,  rule 
justly,  and  increase  liberty;  and  a  frank  and  hearty  rec- 
ognition of  every  advance  made  by  the  Filipino  people 
themselves.  And  for  the  Filipinos,  patriotic  duty  means 
a  full  acceptance  of  government  as  it  has  now  been  estab- 
lished, as  better  than  what  has  preceded,  and  perhaps 
superior  to  what  he  himself  would  have  chosen  and  could 
have  devised;  a  loyalty  to  his  own  people  and  to  their 
interests  and  to  the  public  interests,  that  shall  overcome 
the  personal  selfishness  that  has  set  its  cruel  mark  on 
every  native  institution  in  this  land;  and  a  resolution  to 
obey  the  laws,  preserve  the  peace,  and  use  faithfully 
every  opportunity  for  the  development  of  his  own  char- 
acter and  the  betterment  of  the  race. 


APPENDIX. 

SPANISH   GOVERNORS   OF  THE   PHILIPPINES. 
(1569-1898.) 

1569-1572  Don  Miguel  Lopez  de  Legazpi. 

1572-1575  Guido  de  Labezares. 

1575-1580  Don  Francisco  de  Sande. 

1580-1583  Don  Gonzalo  Ronquillo. 

1583-1584  Don  Diego  Ronquillo. 

1584-1590  Dr.  Don  Santiago  de  Vera. 

1590-1593  Don  Gomez  Perez  Dasmarinas. 

1593-1593  Pedro  de  Rojas. 

1593-1595  Luis  Perez  Dasmarinas. 

1596-1602  Don  Francisco  Tello  de  Guzman. 

1602-1606  Don  Pedro  Bravo  de  Aeuna. 

1606-1608  The  Audiencia. 

1608-1609  Don  Rodrigo  de  Vivero. 

1609-1616  Don  Juan  de  Silva. 

1616-1618  The  Audiencia. 

1618-1624  Don  Alonso  Fajardo  y  Tenza. 

1624-1625  The  Audiencia. 

1625-1626  Don  Fernando  de  Silva. 

1626-1632  Don  Juan  Nino  de  Tabora. 

1632-1633  The  Audiencia. 

1633-1635  Don  Juan  Cerezo  de  Salamanca. 

1635-1644  Don  Sebastian  Hurtado  de  Corcuera. 

1644-1653  Don  Diego  Fajardo  y  Chac6n. 

1653-1663  Sabiniano  Manrique  de  Lara. 

1663-1668  Don  Diego  de  Salcedo. 

1668-1669  Don  Manuel  de  la  Pefia  Bonifaz. 

1669-1677  Don  Manuel  de  Leon. 

1677-1678  The  Audiencia. 

1678-1684  Don  Juan  de  Vargas  Hurtado. 

321 


322 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


1684-1689  Don  Gabriel  de  Curuzealegui  y  Arriola. 

1689-1690  Don  Alonso  de  Avila  Fuertes. 

1690-1701  Don  Fausto  Cruzat  y  Gongora. 

1701-1709  Don  Domingo  Zabalburu  de  Echevarri. 

1709-1715  Don  Martin  de  Urzua,  Conde  de  Lizarraga. 

1715-1717  The  Audiencia. 

1717-1719  Don  Fernando  Manuel  de  Bustamante  y  Rueda, 

1719-1721  Archbishop  Fray  Francisco  de  la  Cuesta. 

1721-1729  Don  Toribio  Jos6  Cosio  y  Campo. 

1729-1739  Don  Fernando  Valdes  y  Tamon. 

1739-1745  Don  Gaspar  de  la  Torre. 

1745-1750  Bishop  Fray  Juan  de  Arrechederra. 

1750-1754  Don  Jose  Francisco  de  Obando  y  Soli's: 

1754-1759  Don  Pedro  Manuel  de  Arandia  Santisteban. 

1759-1761  Don  Miguel  Lino  de  Ezpeleta  (Bishop  of  Cebu). 

1761-1762  Archbishop  Manuel  Antonio  Rojo  del  Rio  y  Vieyra. 

1762-1764  Don  Simon  de  Anda  y  Salazar. 

1764-1765  Don  Francisco  Javier  de  la  Torre. 

1765-1770  Don  Jose  Raon. 

1770-1776  Dr.  Don  Simon  de  Anda  y  Salazar. 

1776-1778  Don  Pedro  Sarrio. 

1778-1787  Don  Jose"  Basco  y  Vargas. 

1787-1788  Don  Pedro  Sarrio. 

1788-1793  Don  Felix  Berenguer  de  Marquina. 

1793-1806  Don  Rafael  Maria  de  Aguilar  y  Ponce  de  Leon. 

1806-1810  Don  Mariano  Fernandez  de  Folgueras. 

1810-1813  Don  Manuel  Gonzalez  de  Aguilar. 

1813-1816  Don  Jose  Gardoqui  Jaraveitia. 

1816-1822  Don  Mariano  Fernandez  de  Folgueras. 

1822-1825  Don  Juan  Antonio  Martinez. 

1825-1830  Don  Mariano  Ricafort  Palacio  y  Abarca. 

1830-1835  Don  Pascual  Enrile  y  Alcedo. 

1835-1835  Don  Gabriel  de  Torres. 

1835-1835  Don  Juan  Crame. 

1835-1837  Don  Pedro  Antonio  Salazar. 

1837-1838  Don  Andre's  Garcfa  Carnba. 


APPENDIX. 


323 


1838-1841  Don  Luis  Lardizdbal  y  Montojo. 

1841-1843  Don  Marcelino  de  Orad  Lecumberri. 

1843-1844  Don  Francisco  de  Paula  Alcald.de  la  Torre. 

1844-1849  Don  Narciso  Claveria  y  Zaldua. 

1849-1850  Don  Antonio  Maria  Blanco. 

1850-1853  D.  Antonio  de  Urbiztondo  y  Eguia. 

1853-1854  General  Ramon  Montero  y  Bladino. 

1854-1854  General  Manuel  Pa  via  y  Lay. 

1854-1854  General  Ramon  Montero  (acting). 

1854-1856  General  Manuel  Crespo  y  Cerrian. 

1856-1857  General  Ramon  Montero  (acting). 

1857-1860  General  Fernando  de  Norzagaray. 

1860-1860  General  Ramon  Solano  y  Lldnderal  (acting). 

1860-1861  General  Juan  Herrera  Davila  (acting). 

1861-1862  General  Jos<5  Lemery. 

1 862-1 862  Don  Salvador  Valdez  (acting). 

1862-1865  General  Rafael  Echagiie. 

1865-1865  General  Joaquin  de  Salas  (acting). 

1865-1866  General  Juan  de  Lara  6  Irigoyen. 

1866-1866  General  Juan  Laureano  de  Sanz  (acting). 

1866-1866  General  de  Marina  Antonio  Osorio  (acting). 

1866-1866  General  Joaquin  de  Salas  (acting). 

1866-1869  General  JosS  de  la  Gdndara. 

1869-1869  General  Manuel  Maldonado  (acting). 

1869-1871  General  Carlos  de  la  Torre. 

1871-1873  General  Rafael  Izquierdo. 

1873-1873  General  de  Marina  Manuel  MacCrohon  (acting). 

1873-1874  General  Juan  Alaminos'y  Vivar. 

1874-1874  General  Manuel  Blanco  Valderrama  (acting). 

1874-1877  Vice  Admiral  Jos6  Malcampo  y  Monje. 

1877-1880  General  Domingo  Moriones  y  Murillo. 

1880-1880  General  de  Marina  Rafael  Rodriguez  Arias  (acting). 

1880-1883  General  Fernando  Primo  de  Rivera,  Marques  de  Estella. 

1883-1883  General  Emilio  de  Molins,  Segundo  Cabo  (acting). 

1883-1885  El  Capitdn  General  del  Ejercito  Joaqum  Jovellar  y  Soler. 

1885-1885  General  Emilio  de  Molins  (acting). 


324 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


1885-1888  General  Emilio  Terrero. 

1888-1888  General  Antonio  Molto  (acting). 

1888-1888  Vice  Admiral.Federico  Lobat6n  (acting). 

1888-1891  General  Valeriano  We"yler. 

1891-1893  General  Eulogio  Despojol,  Conde  de  Caspe. 

1893-1893  General  Federico  Ochando,  Segundo  Cabo  (acting). 

1893-1896  General  Ramon  Blanco  y  Erenas,  Marque's  de  Pena-Plata. 

1896—1897  General  Camilo  G.  de  Polavieja,  Marque's  de  Polavieja. 

1897—1897  General  Jos£  de  Lachambre  y  Dominguez  (acting). 

1897-1898  General   Fernando   Primo   de   Rivera,   Capitan   General, 

Marque's  de  Estella. 

1898-1898  General  Basilic  Augustin. 

1898-1898  General  Fermih  Jaudenes  y  Alvarez. 

1898-1898  General  Francisco  Rizzo. 

1898-1898  General  Diego  de  los  Rios   (governed  in  Hoflo  from  the 

capture  of  Manila  to  the  Treaty  of  Paris). 


INDEX. 


PAOB 

Abra 257 

Acufia,  Don  Pedro  Bravo  de  191 

Adelantado 109 

Aeta 25,  34,  99 

African  coast,  exploration  of  62 

Agriculture 242,  312 

Aguinaldo,  Emilio, 

283,  294,  298,  304 

Aguinaldo,  Gen.  Baldomero,  298 

Albuquerque 66 

Alcandora,  Raja 133 

Alini  ud  Din,  conversion  of  226 

Aliping  namamahay      .    .    .  103 

Almanzar 82 

Alphabet,  Filipino     ....  96 
America  — 

and  the  Philippines   .     287-321 

named      71 

revolution  in 249 

wars  in 248 

American  control 319 

Anda  y  Salazar,  Don  Simon 

de 236 

Anitos      105 

Anspn 21 

Anti-War  Agitators  in  Amer- 
ica      300 

Arandia,  Governor     ....  228 

Architecture,  Bureau  of    .    .  313 

Archives,  Bureau  of  ....  313 

AreValo 147,  172 

Argensola,  Leonardo  de    .    .  17 

Armada,  destruction  o£    .    .  177 

Atkinson,  Dr.  Fred  W.     .    .  315 

Audiencia,  Royal 109 

abolished 149 

reestablished 153 

Auditor,  Insular 312 

Augustinian  Order     .    .    .    .  121 

Azores  discovered      ....  63 

Bajan 268 

Balboa 73 


PAOB 

Bantflan      f   .   .  226 

Barangay 102 

Batanes  Islands ......  244 

Bathala 105 

Bell,  General  J.  Franklin      .  303 

Benedictines 120 

Benguet 257 

Bibliographies 21 

Bikol 35 

Biscaino,  Sebastian   ....  171 

Bisayas 35, 132 

Blair,  Miss  E.  H 22 

Blood  compact 80 

Bohol 206,  225,  257 

Bonifacio,  Andre's      ....  282 
Borneo  — 

Mohammedans  in  ....  40 

Spanish  expedition  to  .   .  145 

Bowring,  Sir  John 21 

Brooke,  James 272 

Burgos,  Dr.  Jose" 279 

Bushido 59 

Bustamante.  Fernando  Man- 
uel de  217 

Cabalian  discovered  ....  127 

Cabots,  voyage  of  the   ...  70 

Caceres,  Nueva 172 

Cagayanes 35 

Calambu  Raja 79 

Calvin,  John 122 

Campo,  Governor 219 

Canaries  rediscovered  by  the 

Portuguese      63 

Cantava,  Padre      .    •   .    .    .  225 

Carreri     .    ; 21 

Caribs      72 

Carillo,  Don  Pedro    ....  280 

Carolines 117,224 

Casas,  Las 72,111 

Cavendish,  Thomas   ....  175 

Cavite  revolt 279 

Cebu 79,130,172 


326 


INDEX. 


C&Iulas,  Royal 20 

Century  of  obscurity     ...  212 

Chabucano 266 

Chamorros  . 214 

Chao  Ju-kua 97 

Charles  V 73 

Chaves,  Captain  Juan    .    .    .  146 

Chaves,  Don  Juan  de    ...  197 

China  about  1400 56 

Chinese  — 

attempt    to   capture  Ma- 
nila    140 

distrust  of 182 

immigration  restricted      .  183 

in  the  Philippines  ....  97 

first  massacre  of     ....  182 

treaty  with  the 144 

uprising  of 207 

Chirino,  Father  Pedro  ...  16 

Church 119,147 

Ciagu,  Raja 79 

Cipango 67 

Cities,  largest      171 

Civil  commission 308 

Civil  Governor,  first  ....  309 

Claudio,  Don  Juan     ....  202 

Claverfa,  General 265 

Clemen  te,  Juan 170 

Clive,  Lord      .......  233 

Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  .  312 

Coast  Guard 312 

Code  of  Civil  Procedure    .    .  314 

Cofradia 264 

Cold  Storage  and  Ice  Plant .  313 

Colin,  Father  Francisco    .    .  17 
Colonial  Policy  of  Spam    112,113 

Columbus,  Christopher ...  66 

Combe's,  Father  Francisco    .  18 

Commerce  restricted  ....  112 

Commerce  and  Police    ...  312 

Commercial  House     ....  113 

Conquest  and  Settlement      .  125 

Constabulary0     .    ..    ..    .  312 

Constitution,  American     .    .  287 

Contratacion,  Casa  de   ...  113 

Corala   . 82 

Corcuera,  Hurtado  de    .    .    .  197 

Cornish,  Admiral    .....  234 

Corregidor,  battles  near    .    .  193 

Cort<§s  . 73,  109,116 


Courts  314 

Crusades  48 

Cruz,  Apolinario  de  la  .  .  .  263 

Cuba  discovered 68 

Cubans,  American  sympathy 

for .-•.-•  291 

Customs  and  Immigration, 

Bureau  of 313 

Da  Gama,  Vasco 65 

Dagohoy,  rebellion  led  by,  226,  257 

Dampier      ........  21 

Dasmarinas     .......  149 

Dato 102 

Decree  of  1589 149 

De  Vera,  Dr.  Santiago      .    .  148 

Dewey's  victory 293 

Diaz,  Batholomew     ....  65 

Dominic,  Saint 120 

Dominicans 120,  148 

Drake,  Sir  Francis 144 

Draper,  General 234 

Ducos,  Father 229 

Dutch  — 

at  Mariveles    ......  154 

capture  Chinese  Junks      .  193 

conflicts  with      208 

expedition  against     ...  191 

expeditions  to  Indies     .    .  189 

in  Formosa 194 

trading  methods  of    ...  190 
Dutch  and  Moro  wars   .     187-211 

Dyaks      ...........  33 

East,  Far    . 51,56 

Earth 53,  66 

Education,  Bureau  of    ...     313 
Educational  system   ....     274 
Educational  work  of  the  re- 
ligious orders       ....     205 
El cano,  Juan  Sebastian     .  83,114 

Encomiendas        Ill,  157 

Engineering,  Bureau  of  .  .  312 
England  about  1400  ...  46 
England  and  France .  .  .  .  232 
English  Language  ....  315 
Esteybar,  Don  Francisco  de,  208 
Ethnology,  study  of  ...  25 

Europe,  wars  in 248 

Explorers,  Spanish     ....     109 


INDEX. 


327 


Fernandina 172 

Fetishes  among  the  Filipinos  103 

Feudalism 43 

Figueroa,  Rodriguez  de     .    .  151 

Filipino  alphabet,  source  of,  96 

Filipino  independence   .    .    .  318 
Filipino    people    before   the 
arrival  of  the  Spaniards 

88-107 

Filipino  writings,  early     .    .  96 
Filipinos  — 

assassination  of      ....  306 

classes  of 103 

converted  to  Christianity  168 
distribution  of  ....  88 
in  eighteenth  century  .  .  225 
in  movement  for  reform  .  279 
increase  in  educated  .  .  277 
liberal  ideas  among  .  .  .  273 
life  and  progress  of  ...  206 
material  progress  of  .  .  106 
misunderstanding  be- 
tween Americans  and .  295 
reorganize  army  ....  305 

religion  of 105 

under  the  Encomiendas    .  161 
Finance    and    Justice,    De- 

•       partment  of 312 

Florida  discovered     ....  73 

Food,  scarcity  of    ...'..  165 

Forestry,  Bureau  of  ....  312 

Formosa      194,  202 

France  — 

about  1400       46 

war  between  England  and  232 

Francisof  Assisi,  Saint  .    .    .  121 

Franciscans     .    .    .    121,  152,  205 

French  revolution      ....  249 
Friars  — 

attitude  toward  education,  277 

coming  of 168 

missionary  efforts  of  ...  149 

opposed 279 

organization  of 120 

repress  the  people      .    .    .  263 

resist  English      236 

Funston,  General 305 

Galleons,  capture  of      ...  175 

Gallinato,  Juan 153 


Gama,  Vasco  da     .    .    ,    .    .  65 
Geographical  discoveries  .     61-87 

Germany  about  1400     ...  46 

Gibbon,  Edward 42 

Gil,  Padre 283 

Goiti,  Captain  Martin  de 

100,  127,  133 

Gomez,  Father 280 

Gonzaga,  Don  Eugracio    .    .  298 

Guam 214,  308 

Guzmdn,  Don  Francisco  Tello 

de 152 

Hai-tan 99 

Haiti  discovered     .....  68 

Hari 102 

Health,  Bureau  of  Public     .  312 

Henry,  Prince 61 

Herrada,  Friar  Martin  .    .    .  130 
Hindus  — 

in  the  Philippines  ....  92 

Malays  and 36 

Hispaniola  discovered   ...  68 

Historical  materials,  recent  19 

History 12,  15 

Holy  Child  of  Cebu    ....  129 

Homonhon      78 

Hospitals 205 

Horses 107 

Humabon 80 

Ibanag  dialect 35 

Ibilao 34 

Ide,  Henry  C 308 

Idols  among  the  Filipinos     .  105 

Igorot  provinces 244 

Igorots 34 

Ilokano 35 

Iloilo 172,  262 

Ilungots 34 

India 36,  56,  61,  66 

Indies,  Dutch  expedition  to  189 

Indies,  West 70 

Instruction,  Department  of  313 

Interior,  Department  of    .    .  312 

Instruction  in  English  .    .    .  315 

Insular  Government      .    .    .  311 

Internal  Revenue,  Bureau  of  313 

Inquisition       122,  212 

Islands,  naming  of     ....  118 


328 


INDEX. 


ItCoan 209 

Ita 25 

Italy  — 

about  1400      46 

lyeyasu 59 


21 

Japan  — 

about  1400      57 

development  of 9 

Japanese  colony 185 

Jesuits  — 

activity  of  . 226 

arrival  of     .......  151 

a  source  of  historical  in- 
formation      17 

expulsion  of 238 

increase  in  wealth      .    .    .  237 

organized 123 

return  of 274 

John  I  of  Portugal     ....  61 

Jolo  — 

conquest  of 201 

forts  destroyed  at      ...  270 
treaty  with  sultan  of    220,  271 

Jomonjol 78 

Judicial  system 313 

Justice,  Bureau  of 313 

Kaan,  the  Great 54 

Kabunsuan 40 

Kabunian        105 

Katipunan 282 

Koxinga 209 

Kue-Sing 209 

Labezares,   Guido   de,   gov- 
ernor   138,  143, 164 

Laboratories,  Government    .  312 

Lacandola,  Raja 133 

Ladrone  Islands  — 

colonized 213 

depopulation  of      ....  215 

discovered 76 

visited  by  Dampier    ...  21 

Lands,  Bureau  of  Public  .    .  312 

Language,  development    of  49 

Languages  of  the  Malayans  60 

Laon        105 


Lara,  Don  Sabiniano  Man- 

rique  de 210 

Las  Casas 72,  111 

Laws  of  the  Indies  ....  123 
Lawton,  General  .  .  .  301,  307 
Ledesma,  Bartolome"  de  .  .  162 
Legarda,  Hon.  Benito  .  .  .  310 

Legazpi    . 126,  137 

Leyte,  religious  revolt  at      .     206 

Liga  Filipina       282 

Lima,  Pablo  de 162 

Limahong 140 

Limasaua 78 

Loaisa,  Jofre  de 16,  115 

Lobo,  Sebastian 202 

Loyola,  Ignatius 123 

Lukban,  General 309 

Luna,  Antonio  de 296 

Luis,  Don 151 

Luther,  Martin  ...  74,  122 
Luzon,  conquest  of  .  ."  .  .  136 
Luzuriaga,  Hon.  Jos6  .  .  .  310 

Mabini,  Don  Apolinario  .  .  298 
MacArthur,  General  .  301,308 

Madeira  Islands 62 

Magellan      ....  16,  74,  81,114 

Magellan,  Straits  of  ....  75 

Maharlika 103 

Maine,  destruction  of  the      .  292 

Malaspina,  Captain  ....  245 
Malay  Archipelago  about 

1400 59 

Malayo-Polynesian  speech  .  90 
Malayan  peoples  .  31,  32,  35,  90 

Malays,  Mohammedan      .    .  106 

Malays  and  Hindus    ....  36 

Malolos  campaign      ....  299 

Malvar,  General 309 

Manchus      57 

Mandaya 34 

Mangyans 33 

Manobo 34 

Manila  — 

about  1600      177 

attacked  by  Chinese      .    .  140 

battle  of 298 

capture  of 294 

Chinese  in 180 

decline  of 185 


INDEX. 


329 


FADE 

Manila  —  Continued 

earthquake  at 155 

founded 135 

importance  of 173 

improvements  in    ....  218 

opened  to  trade      ....  259 

taken  by  the  English     .    .  235 

taken  by  the  Spanish    .    .  133 

Manila  Normal  School  .    .    .  276 

March,  Major 304 

Mariveles,  Dutch  fleet  cap- 
tured at 192 

Masonry 280 

Maximilian      73 

May-nila      133 

Mediaeval  period 42 

Mendoza,  viceroy  of  Mexico  109 

Mexico 73,  253 

Mincopies 31 

Mindoro,  pirates  of    ....  132 
Mindanao  — 

early  history  of 18 

people  of 34 

Spanish  settlements  on     .  266 

Ming  dynasty 57 

Mining,  Bureau  of 312 

Missionary,  the  Spanish    .    .  123 

Mogul,  Great 56 

Mohammed 37 

Mohammedans 47 

Moluccas  abandoned      .    .    .  208 

Monasticism,  rise  of  ....  119 

Mongols,  Tartar 54 

Morga,  Antonio  de     .    .    .     17,  20 

Moro  forts  destroyed     .    .    .  270 

Moro  Malays,  trade  with      .  99 
Moro  pirates  — 

activity  of 207 

first  expedition  against     .  132 

in  1771 240 

increase  of 228 

of  Tawi  Tawi      220 

rise  of 153 

Moros  of  Jolo,  attacked  .    .    .  146 
Moros  — 

Corcuera's         expedition 

against 198 

origin  of  name 41 

Morones,  Juan  de 162 

Moses,  Prof.  Bernard      -  308,  315 


Mota,  Captain  Lorenzo  de  la  163 

Municipal  governments     .    .  265 

Museum,  Philippine  ....  313 

Napoleon  1 251 

Natives  under  Spanish  rule  110 
Navarrete,    Father   Fernan- 
dez      18 

Navigator,  the 61 

Navy  established 245 

Negritos 25,  98 

Negros,  occupation  of  ...  301 
Netherlands    become    inde- 
pendent      188 

Newspapers 273 

Non-Christian    Tribes,    Bu- 
reau of 312 

Normal  School,  Manila     .    .  276 

Northern  route  discovered  .  131 
Nueva  Cdceres,  founded  146, 172 
Nueva  Segovia  ....  147, 172 

Nueva  Vergara 268 

Obando,  Marquis  of  ....  228 

Orang  benua       32 

Oranglaut 268 

Orinoco  River 70 

Ortega,  Don  Joaquin     .    .    .  264 

Otis,  General       297 

Oyanguran,  Don  Jos6    .    .    .  267 

Ozcariz,  Don  Mariano   .    .    .  266 

Pacific  Ocean  discovered      .  73 

Palaos      224 

Pampangos 35 

revolt  of  ........  206 

Pangasinans 35 

Papuans 31 

Pardo  de  Tavera,  Dr.  T.  H. 

22,  92,  310 

Pelews 224,  253 

Pelew  Islands 117 

Peru,  conquest  of 73 

Philip  the  Handsome    ...  73 
Philippine  Civil  Commission  308 
Philippine    Islands    discov- 
ered        78 

Philippines  — 

America  and   .  .    287-320 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Philippines  —  Continued 
a   subject    for  historical 

4      study  ..  '. 9-24 

American  ideas  about    .    .  295 

as  a  Spanish  colony       .    .  108 

Chinese  in  the 97 

coming  of  the  Spaniards  .  40 

development  of 9 

during  the  period  of  Euro- 
pean revolution  .   .     231-258 
expedition  to      .    115,  117,  126 

first  archbishop  in  ....  152 

historical  accounts  of    .    .  15 

Inquisition  in 212 

Jesuits  expelled  from     .    .  239 

navy  established  in    ...  245 
peoples  of    ......     25-42 

political  decline  of     ...  212 

rebellions  in 254 

returned  to  Spain       .    .    .  236 

separated  from  Mexico  .    .  253 

Spanish  occupation  of  .    .  16 

threatened  by  Chinese  .    .  210 

under  the  English      .    .    .  234 

visited  by  Dampier    ...  21 
Philosophy  of  the  eighteenth 

century,  new 231 

Pigafetta,  Antonio     ....  16 

Pilar,  Gregorio  del 303 

Pineda,  Don  Antonio    .    .    .  245 

Pintados,  Islas  de  los  ...  131 
Piracy  .  .  .  196,  228,  246,  271 
Pirates  .  132,  153,  220,  240,  268 

Pizarro 73 

Polistas 168 

Polo,  Marco     . 54 

Poniente,  Islas  del  ....  79 
Portuguese  colonies  .  .  147,  195 
Portuguese  discover  Eastern 

passage 61 

Posts,  Bureau  of        ....  312 

Press,  influence  of      ....  273 

Primo  de  Rivera,  General     .  285 

Printing,  Bureau  of   ...    .    .  313 

Prisons .','.,,  312 

Progress  and  revolution    .    ,  259 

Pueblo     ..    .. .  .",b'j4i?.  -    .  ',  262 


Raja     .    .'.'.".' 
Rebellion  of  1896. 


102. 
283 


Recollects 169 

Reformation  ,. 121 

Regidor,  Don  .Antonio  .    .    .  280 

Religion  of  the  Filipinos  .    .  105 

Renaissance        45 

Repartimentos Ill 

Residencia 204 

Retana,  W.  E 20 

Revenues  and  Expenditures  313 

Revolt  of  1841 263 

Revolution      249 

Rizal  y  Mercado,  Dr.  Jos6 

17,  280,  284 

Rojo,  Don  Manuel     ....  229 
Ronquillo,  Don  Gonzalo 

146,  147,  164 

Robertson,  J.  A 22 

Saavedra,    Don    Alvarp    de 

16, 116 

Salazar,  Domingo  de      ...  168 

Salamanca,  Juan  Cerezo  de   .  196 

Salcedo,  Don  Diego  de      .    .  212 

Salcedo,  Juan  de 132 

Samal  pirates 268 

Samal  ports  destroyed       .    .  269 

Samar  discovered 78 

San  Andres,  orphanage  of    .  .  170 
San  Augustfn,  Fr.  Gaspar  de 

17,  100,  126 

Sanchez,  Alonso 149 

Sanchez,  Padre  Alonzo      .    .  168 

Sandico,  Don  Teodoro  .    .    .  298 

Sangleyes 184 

San  Juan  de  Dios  hospital    .  120 

Sarangani 118 

Santa  Potenciana 170 

Santibanez,  Ignacio   ....  152 

Santo  Nino .    . 129 

Sanvitores,     Padre      Diego 

Luis  de     ...'....  213 

Sedefip,  Padre  Antonio     .    .  168 

Segovia,  Nueva      172 

Seljuks    ;.    ., 47 

Schwan,  General        ....  305 

School,  Manila  Normal      .    .  276 

Schools     .....    169,  274,  314 

Siam,  treaty  with       ....  21 

Sierra,  Don  Juan 218 

Signal  Service     ...    .    .    .  312 


1XDEX. 


331 


Silonga 151 

Siiva,  Juan  de 192 

Sioco 141 

Slavery 63,  103 

Smith,  Gen.  James     ....  301 

Soliman,  Raja 133 

Sonnerat,  M 21 

South  America,  rebellion  in  253 

Spaniards 171,  256 

Spain  — 

colonial  policy  of    ....  113 

decline  of 252 

economic  policy  of     ...  220 

war  with  United  States     .  292 
Spanish  — 

found  a  post  at    Zambo- 

anga 196 

increase  in  population   .    .  276 

settle  Mindanao 266 

take  Moro  city  of  Manila  133 

Spanish  and  Portuguese  .  .  177 
Spanish  attitude  toward 

education 277 

Spanish  expedition  to  Bor- 
neo      145 

Spanish  government       .    .    .  163 

Spanish  occupation    ....  140 

Spanish  misrule  ended  .  .  286 
Spanish  rule  established  156,  165 
Spanish  soldier  and  the 

Spanish  missionary    .    .  108 

Spilbergen,  Admiral  ....  193 

Statistics,  Bureau  of .    .    .    .  313 

Sual  opened  to  trade  ....  261 

Subanon       34 

Sulu 268 

Sulu  treaty 271 

Swingli 122 

Taft.  William  H 308 

Tagdlog  language 90 

Tagalog  people 35 

Tagal,  Moro  pirate     ....  197 

Tagbanwas      34 

Tamerlane 56 

Tartar  Mongols 54 

Tattooing 131 

Tawi  Tawi,  pirates  of    ...  220 

Taycosama      152 

Ternate,  taken  by  Spanish   .  17 


Tierra  del  Fuego 76 

Timour 56 

Tobacco  industry 242 

Tondo,  District  of      ....  185 

Torre,  Don  Carlos  de  la    .    .  278 

Torre,  Don  Francisco  de  la  236 

Torre,  Hernando  de  la      .    .  116 

Toscanelli        67 

Totanes,  Padre 96 

Trade  — 

restricted 112,174 

routes  of      51 

Venetian  monopoly  of  .    .  52 

with  the  East 51 

Treasurer,  Insular      ....  312 

Trias,  Gen.  Mariano  ....  298 

Turks 47 

United  States  — 

development  of 287 

war  with  Spain 292 

Urbiztondo,  Governor  .    .    .  268 
Urdaneta,        Andres        de 

100,  115, 125 

Van  Noort 154 

Vargas,  Don  Jos6  Basco  y    .  242 

Velarde,  Father  Murillq    .    .  17 

Venice      49 

Vespucci,  Amerigo     ....  71 

Vera,  Dr.  Santiago  de   .    148,  162 

Vidal,  Monte ro  y 20 

Vigan 172 

Villalobos,  Lopez  de      .    .  16,  117* 

Volcanic  eruptions     ....  254 


Weather  Bureau     .... 

Wellington       

Wcyler,  Governor-General 
Wheaton,  General  .  .  . 
Wittert,  Admiral  .... 

Wolfe,  General 

Worcester,  Dean  C.  .  .  . 
Worms,  Diet  at  .... 

Wright,  Luke  E 

Writing,  systems  of  ... 
Writing's,  early  Filipino  . 

Xavier,  Saint  Francis    .    . 


312 

252 

292 

301 

192 

233 

308 

74 

308 

93 

96 

118 


332 


INDEX, 


Young,  General     303 

Yusef 82 

Zamal 78 

Zamboanga  — 

abandoned 18,  208 

expedition  to  Samal  .    .    .  269 

opened  to  trade     ....  261 


PAGE 

Zamboanga  —  Continued 

refounded 218 

Spanish  post  at      ....  196 

settled      266 

Zamora,  Father      .    .    .     279, 280 

Zulueta,  M 22 

Zuniga,  Father  Joaquin  Mar- 
tinez de 19 


G»/6f 


a  39 


UCSD  Libr. 


000  670  456 


Y 

I 


